{"id":1710,"date":"2025-11-07T08:24:25","date_gmt":"2025-11-07T05:24:25","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/tarihkursu.com\/?p=1710"},"modified":"2025-11-07T08:24:26","modified_gmt":"2025-11-07T05:24:26","slug":"9-sinif-tarih-ii-unite-eski-cag-medeniyetleri-ders-notlari","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/tarihkursu.com\/index.php\/2025\/11\/07\/9-sinif-tarih-ii-unite-eski-cag-medeniyetleri-ders-notlari\/","title":{"rendered":"9. S\u0131n\u0131f Tarih II. \u00dcnite Eski \u00c7a\u011f Medeniyetleri Ders Notlar\u0131"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>Bu yaz\u0131m\u0131zda g\u00fcncel m\u00fcfredata g\u00f6re haz\u0131rlad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z\u00a0<strong>9. s\u0131n\u0131f tarih dersi 2. \u00fcnitesi\u00a0<\/strong>olan\u00a0<strong>Eski \u00c7a\u011f Medeniyetleri <\/strong>\u00fcnitesinin\u00a0<strong>\u00f6zet ders notlar\u0131n\u0131\u00a0<\/strong>payla\u015f\u0131yoruz.\u00a0<strong>9. s\u0131n\u0131f tarih kitab\u0131 \u00f6zet pdf\u00a0<\/strong>ders notlar\u0131 sayesinde derslerde daha ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 olacaks\u0131n\u0131z.\u00a0<strong>Maarif modeline\u00a0<\/strong>uygun olarak haz\u0131rlad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z\u00a0<strong>9. s\u0131n\u0131f tarih dersi notlar\u0131\u00a0<\/strong>a\u015fa\u011f\u0131daki konular\u0131 kapsamaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Eski \u00c7a\u011f Medeniyetleri<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Tar\u0131m Devrimi\u2019nin Eski \u00c7a\u011f\u2019a Etkileri<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Eski \u00c7a\u011f\u2019da Y\u00f6netenler ve Sava\u015fanlar<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Eski \u00c7a\u011f\u2019da Hukuk<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Eski \u00c7a\u011f\u2019da \u0130nan\u00e7, Bilim ve Sanat<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>T\u00fcrklerde Konarg\u00f6\u00e7er Ya\u015fam<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski \u00c7a\u011f Devletleri Kronolojisi<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 4000- \u2026 \u00c7in<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><a>M\u00d6 <\/a>4000- 2350 S\u00fcmer Kent Devletleri<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 3150-332 M\u0131s\u0131rlar<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 2330-2140 Akadlar<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 2025- 612 Asur Kent Devletleri<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 1894-536 Babiller<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 1650-1190 Hititler<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 I. Bin \u0130skitler<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 850-585 Urartular<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 750- 690 Frigyal\u0131lar<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 756-146 Yunan \u015eehir Devletleri<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 753- MS 476 Roma<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 687- 546 Lidyal\u0131lar<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 382- 146 Makedon Devleti<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 220- MS 216 Asya Hun Devleti<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">TARIM DEVR\u0130M\u0130N\u0130N YERLE\u015eMEYE VE EKONOM\u0130K FAAL\u0130YETLERE ETK\u0130S\u0130<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Medeniyet nedir<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130nsan ancak bir toplum i\u00e7inde varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrebilir. Toplum denince akla gelen ilk kavramlardan olan medeniyet ise bir toplumun maddi ve manevi varl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n, fikir, sanat \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131yla ilgili niteliklerinin t\u00fcm\u00fc olarak tan\u0131mlanabilir. Medeniyetin olu\u015fumu toplumlar\u0131n birbirini etkiledi\u011fi uzunca bir s\u00fcre\u00e7tir. Binlerce y\u0131l \u00f6ncesinde ya\u015fananlar bug\u00fcnk\u00fc medeniyetlerin \u015fekillenmesinde etkili olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130lk insanlar varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrebilmek amac\u0131yla \u00f6nce akl\u0131n\u0131 ve elini kulland\u0131. Kaba ta\u015f aletleri kullanan insanlar bu aletler sayesinde hayvanlar\u0131 avlayabilmek i\u00e7in ilkel ara\u00e7lar tasarlayabildi. Ayr\u0131ca besinleri par\u00e7alara ay\u0131r\u0131p toplad\u0131klar\u0131 tah\u0131l ve meyvelerin tohumlar\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7\u0131karabildi. \u0130nsanlar, \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131klar\u0131 tohumlar\u0131 ekerek tar\u0131m devrimini ba\u015flatt\u0131. Tar\u0131m devriminin etkisiyle yerle\u015fik hayata ge\u00e7en insanlar alet kullan\u0131m\u0131yla ba\u015flayan birikimlerini kurduklar\u0131 medeniyetlerle nesilden nesile aktard\u0131. Bu birikim sayesinde insanl\u0131k tarihinde b\u00fcy\u00fck devrimler, icatlar ve yenilikler birbirini takip etti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>TAR\u0130H \u00d6NCES\u0130 \u00c7A\u011eLAR<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski Ta\u015f (Paleolitik) \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 M\u00d6 600000<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Orta Ta\u015f (Mezolitik) \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 M\u00d6 12000<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Yeni Ta\u015f (Neolitik) \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 M\u00d6 10000<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Maden \u00c7a\u011flar\u0131 M\u00d6 5500<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Yaz\u0131n\u0131n \u0130cad\u0131 ve Tarih \u00c7a\u011flar\u0131n\u0131n Ba\u015flamas\u0131 M\u00d6 3200<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski Ta\u015f (Paleolitik) \u00c7a\u011f\u0131:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130nsanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n geli\u015fiminin b\u00fcy\u00fck bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc i\u00e7ine alan bu d\u00f6nemde insanlar avc\u0131l\u0131k ve toplay\u0131c\u0131l\u0131kla ge\u00e7inmi\u015f, genellikle ma\u011faralarda ya\u015fam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu d\u00f6nemin temel teknolojisi ta\u015ftan yap\u0131lan kaba aletlerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Paleolitik d\u00f6nem insanlar\u0131n\u0131n ma\u011faralara \u00e7izdikleri resimler insanlar\u0131n kendilerini ifade etmelerinin yan\u0131nda \u00f6nemli bir k\u00fclt\u00fcrel aktar\u0131m\u0131 da ortaya koymaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130stanbul\u2019daki Yar\u0131mburgaz, Antalya\u2019daki Karain, \u00d6k\u00fczini ve Beldibi ma\u011faralar\u0131 Anadolu\u2019daki \u00f6nemli Paleolitik \u00c7a\u011f yerle\u015fimleridir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Orta Ta\u015f (Mezolitik) \u00c7a\u011f\u0131:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bir ge\u00e7i\u015f evresi olan bu d\u00f6nemde Paleolitik d\u00f6nemdeki ya\u015fam tarz\u0131 ve al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131klar aynen devam etmekle birlikte avc\u0131l\u0131kta ustala\u015fman\u0131n artt\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve kullan\u0131lan ara\u00e7lar\u0131n biraz daha geli\u015fti\u011fi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mikrolit diye adland\u0131r\u0131lan \u00e7akmak ta\u015f\u0131 ve obsidiyenden yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f geometrik bi\u00e7imli k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck ta\u015f aletler d\u00f6nemin karakterini yans\u0131tmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>K\u00f6pe\u011fin evcille\u015ftirilmesiyle ilk kez bu d\u00f6nemde bir hayvan\u0131n evcille\u015ftirildi\u011fi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Antalya\u2019daki \u00d6k\u00fczini ve Beldibi, Burdur\u2019daki Barad\u0131z, Samsun\u2019daki Tekkek\u00f6y ma\u011faralar\u0131 Anadolu\u2019daki \u00f6nemli Mezolitik \u00c7a\u011f yerle\u015fimleridir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Yeni Ta\u015f (Neolitik) \u00c7a\u011f\u0131:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130nsanlar ilk kez Mezopotamya\u2019da tah\u0131l\u0131 evcille\u015ftirerek tar\u0131m devrimini ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirmi\u015f ve yerle\u015fik hayata ge\u00e7mi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Art\u0131 \u00fcr\u00fcn, \u00f6zel m\u00fclkiyet, toplumsal i\u015f b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn \u00e7e\u015fitlenmesi, kent devletlerine giden s\u00fcrecin ba\u015flamas\u0131 ve daha bir\u00e7ok \u015feyin temelinde tar\u0131m devrimi yer almaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu d\u00f6nemin \u00f6nemli \u00f6zelliklerinden birisi de \u00e7anak-\u00e7\u00f6mlek yap\u0131m\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Konya\u2019daki \u00c7atah\u00f6y\u00fck, Burdur\u2019daki Hac\u0131lar, Malatya\u2019daki Cafer H\u00f6y\u00fck ve Aksaray\u2019daki A\u015f\u0131kl\u0131 H\u00f6y\u00fck Anadolu\u2019daki ba\u015fl\u0131ca Neolitik \u00c7a\u011f yerle\u015fimleridir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Maden \u00c7a\u011flar\u0131:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu devir insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n k\u00fclt\u00fcrel a\u00e7\u0131dan kat etti\u011fi geli\u015fimi temsil etmektedir. Tarih \u00f6ncesi d\u00f6nemlerle ba\u015flayan bu d\u00f6nem yaz\u0131n\u0131n icad\u0131ndan sonra da devam etmi\u015ftir. Maden \u00c7a\u011f\u0131; bak\u0131r, tun\u00e7 ve demir olmak \u00fczere \u00fc\u00e7 d\u00f6neme ayr\u0131l\u0131r. Kullan\u0131lan ilk maden olan bak\u0131r\u0131n dayan\u0131ks\u0131z olmas\u0131 yerini bak\u0131r ve kalay\u0131n al\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131 olan tunca b\u0131rakmas\u0131na neden olmu\u015ftur. Uzun bir s\u00fcre sosyal ve asker\u00ee hayatta yo\u011fun bir \u015fekilde kullan\u0131lan tun\u00e7 ise yerini \u00e7ok daha dayan\u0131kl\u0131 bir maden olan demire b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu maden g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde dahi hayat\u0131 \u015fekillendiren en \u00f6nemli maddelerdendir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Yaz\u0131n\u0131n \u0130cad\u0131 ve Tarih \u00c7a\u011flar\u0131n\u0131n Ba\u015flamas\u0131:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130nsanlar tar\u0131m devrimiyle birlikte \u00f6nce k\u00f6yler ile b\u00fcy\u00fck ve kalabal\u0131k kentler, sonra sosyal s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n oldu\u011fu ve i\u015f b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcne dayal\u0131 devletler kurmu\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tar\u0131m \u00fcretiminin fazlal\u0131\u011f\u0131 sonucunda olu\u015fan art\u0131 \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn hem vergilendirilmesi hem de saklanmas\u0131 gerekti\u011finden kay\u0131t alt\u0131na al\u0131nmas\u0131 ihtiyac\u0131 ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu durum yaz\u0131n\u0131n icat edilmesinin \u00f6nemli sebeplerinden biri olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Yaz\u0131n\u0131n icad\u0131 ile insanlar k\u00fclt\u00fcrlerine dair t\u00fcm bilgi ve birikimlerini gelecek nesillere aktarabilmi\u015f, kurduklar\u0131 medeniyetlerin geli\u015fmesini ve devam\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>TARIM DEVR\u0130M\u0130N\u0130N ORTAYA \u00c7IKTI\u011eI ALANLAR<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczden yakla\u015f\u0131k 15.000 y\u0131l \u00f6nce d\u00fcnyan\u0131n \u0131s\u0131nmas\u0131 ve buzullar\u0131n erimesiyle birlikte d\u00fcnya \u00fczerindeki baz\u0131 co\u011frafi b\u00f6lgeler insanlar\u0131n daha rahat ya\u015fayaca\u011f\u0131 yerler h\u00e2line gelmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu yerlerin ba\u015f\u0131nda Mezopotamya, G\u00fcneydo\u011fu Asya ve Orta Amerika bulunur. Bu co\u011frafyalarda ger\u00e7ekle\u015fen tar\u0131m devrimiyle birlikte yerle\u015fik hayata ge\u00e7ilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Neolitik devrim de denilen tar\u0131m devriminin sonucunda k\u00f6ylerden kentlere, kentlerden \u015fehir ya\u015fam\u0131na ve devlet olu\u015fumlar\u0131na de\u011fin bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te insanl\u0131k tarihinin ilk medeniyetleri kurulmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Orta Amerika<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Meksika K\u00f6rfezi&#8217;nin kuzeyinden g\u00fcneye dek uzanan Kuzey Amerika&#8217;y\u0131 ve G\u00fcney Amerika&#8217;ya birbirine ba\u011flayan bir kara par\u00e7as\u0131d\u0131r. Bu b\u00f6lgede irili ufakl\u0131 bir\u00e7ok g\u00f6l ve nehirler bulunmaktad\u0131r. Arazisi genellikle d\u00fcz ve tar\u0131ma elveri\u015flidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>G\u00fcneydo\u011fu Asya<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u00c7in&#8217;in g\u00fcneyinden ba\u015flayarak g\u00fcneyde Yeni Gine&#8217;ye ve bat\u0131da Hindistan&#8217;\u0131n do\u011fusuna dek uzanan bir b\u00f6lgeyi kapsar. L\u00f6s topraklar ad\u0131 verilen arazisi sulak ve verimlidir. Sar\u0131 Irmak, G\u00f6k Irmak, Ganj Nehri gibi geni\u015f ve uzun \u0131rmaklar\u0131n sulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bol, geni\u015f ve genellikle d\u00fcz bu araziler sulu tar\u0131ma \u00e7ok elveri\u015flidir. Muson ikliminin etkisiyle de y\u0131l\u0131n belli zamanlar\u0131nda \u00e7ok ya\u011f\u0131\u015f alan bir b\u00f6lgededir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mezopotamya<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130ki nehir aras\u0131 anlam\u0131na gelmektedir. Mezopotamya Za\u011froslar ile Toroslar da\u011f\u0131n\u0131n etekleriyle Suriye \u00e7\u00f6l\u00fcn\u00fcn aras\u0131nda F\u0131rat ve Dicle nehirlerinin sulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bereketli topraklar\u0131 i\u00e7eren bir co\u011frafyad\u0131r. Yazlar\u0131 genellikle kurak ge\u00e7mektedir. &#8220;Bereketli Hilal&#8221; de denilen bu b\u00f6lge Anadolu&#8217;da \u00c7atalh\u00f6y\u00fck&#8217;e ve g\u00fcneyde Filistin topraklar\u0131na dek uzanmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>TARIM DEVR\u0130M\u0130N\u0130N \u00d6ZELL\u0130KLER\u0130<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130nsanlar tarihte ilk defa Mezopotamya\u2019da M\u00d6 10000 y\u0131l\u0131 civar\u0131nda yabani bu\u011fday tah\u0131llar\u0131n\u0131 evcille\u015ftirip kendileri yeti\u015ftirmeyi denemi\u015flerdir. Bunda ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 olduktan sonra ektikleri bu evcil tah\u0131llar\u0131 sulayabilecekleri, F\u0131rat ve Dicle nehirlerinin ge\u00e7ti\u011fi d\u00fcz ve verimli arazilerde ya\u015famaya ba\u015flad\u0131lar. B\u00f6ylece insanlar tar\u0131m devrimiyle hem kendi besinlerini hem de yedikleri hayvanlar\u0131n besinlerini \u00fcreterek ya\u015famlar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrebilmi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 8000 y\u0131llar\u0131nda Asya\u2019n\u0131n do\u011fusunda Sar\u0131 ve G\u00f6k nehirlerin arazilerde ya\u015fayan insanlar da benzer bir kayg\u0131yla besin kaynaklar\u0131 olan bitkiyi evcille\u015ftirmi\u015flerdir. Ancak burada ya\u015fayan insanlar\u0131n iklim ve co\u011frafi \u015fartlar gere\u011fi evcille\u015ftirebildikleri tah\u0131l pirin\u00e7 olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tar\u0131m devrimi M\u00d6 7000 y\u0131l\u0131 dolaylar\u0131nda da Orta Amerika\u2019da ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmi\u015ftir. Burada ya\u015fayan insanlar teosinte ad\u0131 verilen yabani bitkiyi evcille\u015ftirmi\u015ftir. B\u00f6ylece g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczdeki m\u0131s\u0131r bitkisini ya\u015fad\u0131klar\u0131 arazilerde ekip kendi besinlerini sa\u011flam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tar\u0131m devrimiyle \u00f6nce tah\u0131l\u0131 evcille\u015ftiren ard\u0131ndan da bu tah\u0131llar\u0131n \u00fcreticisi h\u00e2line gelen insanlar art\u0131k besinini ekip bi\u00e7ti\u011fi araziden sa\u011flayaca\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in yer de\u011fi\u015ftirmeden ya\u015famaya ba\u015flam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. B\u00f6ylece avc\u0131 toplay\u0131c\u0131 g\u00f6\u00e7ebe hayattan yerle\u015fik hayata ge\u00e7ilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tar\u0131m \u00fcretimi zor ve zahmetli oldu\u011fu ve kalabal\u0131k topluluklar h\u00e2linde birlikte ya\u015famay\u0131 gerektirdi\u011fi i\u00e7in toplu yerle\u015fimler, k\u00f6yler ve ilk \u015fehirler kurulmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mezopotamya\u2019da yazlar\u0131 kurak ge\u00e7ti\u011fi i\u00e7in tar\u0131m \u00fcr\u00fcnlerin yeti\u015ftirilmesinde sulamaya ihtiya\u00e7 duyulmu\u015ftur. Mezopotamya medeniyetleri, kurduklar\u0131 \u015fehirlerdeki y\u00f6netim organizasyonu sayesinde sulama i\u015fini \u00e7\u00f6zm\u00fc\u015flerdir. Sulama i\u015fini \u00e7\u00f6zen medeniyetlerin topraktan ald\u0131klar\u0131 y\u00fcksek verim sayesinde art\u0131 \u00fcr\u00fcn ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Tar\u0131msal \u00fcretimle birlikte tar\u0131m d\u0131\u015f\u0131 istihdam gerekli olmu\u015f, \u00f6zellikle art\u0131 \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn depolanmas\u0131 ve korunmas\u0131na y\u00f6nelik i\u015f kollar\u0131 geli\u015fmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hayvanc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n da bir tar\u0131msal faaliyet oldu\u011fu dikkate al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda tar\u0131m devrimiyle birlikte hayvanc\u0131l\u0131k ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Tar\u0131m devrimi \u00f6ncesinde avc\u0131 olan erkekler tar\u0131m devriminden sonra evcille\u015ftirilen hayvanlar\u0131 g\u00fctme, toplay\u0131c\u0131 olan kad\u0131nlar da bitkilerin evcille\u015ftirilmesi i\u015fini ele alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Erkekler eline m\u0131zrak yerine \u00e7oban sopas\u0131, kad\u0131nlar da \u00e7apa alarak i\u015f b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc s\u00fcrd\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Mezopotamya\u2019da ilk k\u00f6yler ve kasabalar kuruldu\u011funda tar\u0131mla u\u011fra\u015fan insanlar tecr\u00fcbelerini kom\u015fular\u0131yla payla\u015fm\u0131\u015f, \u00fcrettikleri farkl\u0131 \u00fcr\u00fcnleri kom\u015fular\u0131yla de\u011fi\u015ftirmi\u015flerdir. \u0130lk zamanlarda akrabal\u0131k ili\u015fkileri arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla yard\u0131mla\u015fmak ve g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fckleri birlikte yenebilmek i\u00e7in ba\u015flayan bu durum daha sonra takas ve i\u015f b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn ilk \u00f6rneklerini olu\u015fturmu\u015ftur. Pazarlar, takas ekonomisiyle \u00fcreticinin ve t\u00fcccarlar\u0131n mallar\u0131n\u0131 civar k\u00f6ylerdeki di\u011fer \u00fcreticilerle de\u011fi\u015ftirdikleri yerler h\u00e2line gelmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tar\u0131m devriminin yerle\u015fme a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan di\u011fer sonucu a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 n\u00fcfus art\u0131\u015f\u0131 olmu\u015ftur. Besin kayg\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n giderek azalmas\u0131 ve daha \u00e7ok n\u00fcfusun daha \u00e7ok i\u015f g\u00fcc\u00fc anlam\u0131na gelmesiyle n\u00fcfus art\u0131\u015f\u0131 h\u0131z kazanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kal\u0131c\u0131 yerle\u015fik ya\u015fam\u0131n etkisiyle insanlar\u0131n ta\u015f\u0131nmaz mallar edinebilmesi \u00f6zel m\u00fclkiyeti do\u011furmu\u015ftur. Tar\u0131m devriminin etkisi g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde dahi devam etmektedir. Tar\u0131m devrimiyle birlikte orta ku\u015fakta yer alan Mezopotamya, G\u00fcneydo\u011fu Asya ve Orta Amerika\u2019daki Eski \u00c7a\u011f medeniyetleri yerle\u015fik hayata ge\u00e7mi\u015ftir. Eski \u00c7a\u011f medeniyetlerinin oldu\u011fu bu b\u00f6lgelerde yo\u011fun n\u00fcfuslu \u015fehirler kurulmu\u015ftur. Kurulan \u015fehirler; y\u00f6neticiler, din adamlar\u0131, askerler, \u00e7ift\u00e7iler ve t\u00fcccarlar gibi sosyal tabakalardan meydana gelmi\u015ftir. \u015eehirlerdeki bu sosyal s\u0131n\u0131flar aras\u0131nda b\u00fct\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc sa\u011flayan devlet olgusu ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>NEOL\u0130T\u0130K KENT: \u00c7ATALH\u00d6Y\u00dcK<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130nsanl\u0131k tarihinin bilinen ilk kentlerinden birisi \u00c7atalh\u00f6y\u00fck\u2019t\u00fc. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczden yakla\u015f\u0131k 9000 y\u0131l \u00f6nce bu \u015fehirde bitkileri evcille\u015ftirip tar\u0131m yapan insanlar art\u0131k toplu ve yerle\u015fik bir ya\u015fam s\u00fcrmeye ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. \u00c7atalh\u00f6y\u00fck kentinde evler biti\u015fik, yan yanayd\u0131 ve sokak neredeyse yoktu. Evlerin giri\u015f kap\u0131s\u0131 evin \u00fcst\u00fcndeki damda yer al\u0131yordu. \u00d6nce merdivenle evin dam\u0131na \u00e7\u0131kan insanlar bu \u015fekilde damdaki kap\u0131dan girdikten sonra merdivenle a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 inerek evlerinin i\u00e7ine girebiliyordu. \u00c7ok yak\u0131n zamana kadar sadece avc\u0131 toplay\u0131c\u0131 olan atalar\u0131 gibi yine avlanmay\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcyorlard\u0131 ama temel ge\u00e7inmeleri art\u0131k topra\u011f\u0131 ekip bi\u00e7erek tar\u0131mla u\u011fra\u015fmakt\u0131. Bu\u011fday, arpa ve yulaf gibi bitkileri ekmekte mahirlerdi. Ayn\u0131 zamanda evcille\u015ftirdikleri hayvanlar\u0131 da vard\u0131 ve bunlar\u0131 evlerinin yak\u0131nlar\u0131nda besliyorlard\u0131. Ke\u00e7i ve koyun yeti\u015ftirip bunlarla besleniyorlard\u0131. Her evde genellikle be\u015f on ki\u015fi aras\u0131nda de\u011fi\u015fen aileler ya\u015famlar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcyordu. Ya\u015fad\u0131klar\u0131 evlerde genellikle bir ana oda bir de yiyecek depolama yeri olarak kulland\u0131klar\u0131 yan oda bulunuyordu. Kaybettikleri insanlar\u0131 bile bu odalar\u0131n alt\u0131na yapt\u0131klar\u0131 mezarlara koyuyorlard\u0131. Zanaat ve sanat hayatlar\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6nemli bir par\u00e7as\u0131yd\u0131. \u00c7anak \u00e7\u00f6mlek gibi yapt\u0131klar\u0131 aletleri ihtiya\u00e7lar\u0131na g\u00f6re her ge\u00e7en g\u00fcn geli\u015ftiriyorlar yeni e\u015fyalar tasarl\u0131yorlard\u0131. Evlerinin duvarlar\u0131na resimler bile yap\u0131yorlard\u0131. \u00c7atalh\u00f6y\u00fck insanlar\u0131 varl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 bor\u00e7lu olduklar\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc verimli topraklar\u0131 analar\u0131 gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcyordu. Bereket tanr\u0131\u00e7alar\u0131n\u0131 betimleyen bir\u00e7ok heykel yapm\u0131\u015flard\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">ESK\u0130 \u00c7A\u011e\u2019DA Y\u00d6NET\u0130M VE ORDU S\u0130STEMLER\u0130<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Bir toplumun belirli bir d\u00f6nemdeki k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fc ve ya\u015fam tarz\u0131 medeniyet veya uygarl\u0131k olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Benzer medeniyet \u00f6zelliklerinin g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc b\u00f6lgeye ise medeniyet havzas\u0131 denilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>MEZOPOTAMYA MEDEN\u0130YET HAVZASI<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mezopotamya ad\u0131 Eski Yunancada nehirler aras\u0131 anlam\u0131na gelmekteydi ve F\u0131rat ve Dicle nehirleri aras\u0131ndaki b\u00f6lgeyi adland\u0131rmak i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lmaktayd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>B\u00f6lge suyun bol oldu\u011fu bereketli topraklara sahip olmas\u0131 ve ticaret yollar\u0131 \u00fczerinde bulunmas\u0131 sebebiyle tarih boyunca bir\u00e7ok medeniyete ev sahipli\u011fi yapm\u0131\u015f ve d\u00fcnya medeniyetine \u00f6nemli katk\u0131lar sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>S\u00fcmerler, Akadlar, Babiller ve Asurlular gibi bir\u00e7ok medeniyet Mezopotamya&#8217;da ya\u015fam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mezopotamya, Nil Vadisi ve Levant ile birlikte &#8220;Bereketli Hilal&#8221; olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan b\u00f6lgenin bir par\u00e7as\u0131d\u0131r. Bu b\u00f6lge, insanl\u0131k tarihinin ilk yerle\u015fik hayata ge\u00e7i\u015flerin ya\u015fand\u0131\u011f\u0131 yerlerden biri olarak kabul edilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>S\u00dcMERLER<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 4000-2350 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f olan S\u00fcmerler, yaz\u0131 ba\u015fta olmak \u00fczere d\u00fcnya uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131na bir\u00e7ok alanda katk\u0131da bulunmu\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kent Devletleri \u015feklinde organize olan ve ba\u015flar\u0131nda ensi veya patesi ad\u0131 verilen y\u00f6neticiler bulunan bu kentler s\u00fcrekli olarak birbiriyle m\u00fccadele halinde olmu\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>G\u00fcney Mezopotamya&#8217;da Basra K\u00f6rfezi&#8217;nin kuzeyinde yer alan bu kentlerin en \u00f6nemlileri: Uruk, Ur, Ki\u015f, Umma, Nippur, Laga\u015f, Eridu, \u0130sin ve Larsa&#8217;d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sami k\u00f6kenli Akadl\u0131 Sargon&#8217;un Uruk kral\u0131 Lugalzagesi&#8217;yi yenilgiye u\u011fratarak y\u00f6netimi ele ge\u00e7irmesiyle birlikte S\u00fcmerler siyasi g\u00fc\u00e7lerini kaybetmi\u015fler, ancak k\u00fclt\u00fcrel anlamda uzun bir s\u00fcre Mezopotamya&#8217;da var olmaya devam etmi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>AKADLAR<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 2350-2150 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcren Akadlar \u0130mparatorluk ad\u0131 verilen sistemin temellerini atm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Akad Kral\u0131 Sargon ve Sargon&#8217;un torunu Naram-sin zaman\u0131nda ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 seferler yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>&nbsp;Sargon ve Naram-sin&#8217;in Anadolu&#8217;ya d\u00fczenledi\u011fi sefere ili\u015fkin kay\u0131tlar Anadolu tarihi hakk\u0131ndaki ilk yaz\u0131l\u0131 kay\u0131tlar\u0131 olu\u015fturmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ba\u015fkenti Agade (Irak) olan Akad \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu Zagroslardan gelen Gutiler taraf\u0131ndan y\u0131k\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>ASURLAR<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Asurlular, M\u00d6 21. y\u00fczy\u0131lda kent devleti olarak kurulmu\u015ftu. Asurlular ad\u0131n\u0131, ad\u0131na bir kent kurduklar\u0131 Tanr\u0131 A\u015f\u015fur&#8217;dan gelmekteydi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kuzey Irak dolaylar\u0131nda hakimiyet kuran Asurlular Anadolu&#8217;da ticaret kolonileri kurmu\u015flar ve yaz\u0131y\u0131 Anadolu&#8217;ya getirmi\u015flerdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Asurlular sava\u015f ve diplomasinin g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc kullanarak devrin en g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc imparatorlu\u011funa d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130n\u015fa ettikleri saraylar\u0131n duvarlar\u0131na kaz\u0131tt\u0131klar\u0131 r\u00f6lyefler Asur ac\u0131mas\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc g\u00f6zler \u00f6n\u00fcne sermektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Asurlular M\u00d6 612 dolaylar\u0131nda Med ve Babil sald\u0131r\u0131lar\u0131 neticesinde ba\u015fkent Ninive&#8217;nin d\u00fc\u015fmesiyle y\u0131k\u0131lm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>BAB\u0130LL\u0130LER<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 20. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Babil kenti etraf\u0131nda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan Babillilerin en \u00f6nemli h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar\u0131ndan olan Hammurabi, yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 reformlarla \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>K\u00fclt\u00fcrel anlamda Mezopotamya&#8217;y\u0131 etkilemi\u015f olan Babilliler, asma bah\u00e7eler in\u015fa etmi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hammurabi&#8217;nin \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnden sonra siyasi ve askeri anlamda \u00f6n plana \u00e7\u0131kamayan Babilliler, Asur&#8217;un y\u0131k\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131nda ba\u015f rol oynad\u0131ktan sonra tekrar Mezopotamya&#8217;n\u0131n \u00f6nemli bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcne h\u00e2kim olmu\u015flard\u0131r. Ancak Perslerin durdurulamaz y\u00fckseli\u015fi ile M\u00d6 539 y\u0131l\u0131nda y\u0131k\u0131larak tarih sahnesinden silinmi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>MISIR MEDEN\u0130YET HAVZASI<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u0131s\u0131r, Nil Nehri&#8217;nin etraf\u0131nda ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f bir medeniyettir. Kuzeyinde Akdeniz, g\u00fcneyinde Nubia&#8217;n\u0131n yer ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r medeniyet havzas\u0131 do\u011fu ve bat\u0131 y\u00f6n\u00fcnde \u00e7\u00f6llerle \u00e7evrilidir. Bu da b\u00f6lgenin sald\u0131r\u0131lardan uzak kalmas\u0131na olanak sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Nil&#8217;in etraf\u0131ndaki alanlarda ve Delta&#8217;da yap\u0131lan tar\u0131m medeniyetin b\u00fcy\u00fcmesinde etkili olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski M\u0131s\u0131r tarihi, kurucu krallar\u0131 kabul edilen Menes (Narmer)&#8217;in M\u00d6 3050&#8217;de iktidar\u0131yla ba\u015flamakta ve M\u00d6 30&#8217;da Ptolemaios (Batlamyus) hanedanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n Roma taraf\u0131ndan y\u0131k\u0131lmas\u0131yla sona ermektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski M\u0131s\u0131r uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n en merak edilen eserlerinden olan Giza piramitleri IV. Hanedan zaman\u0131nda in\u015fa edilmi\u015ftir. A\u015f\u0131r\u0131 maliyetli olmas\u0131 sebebiyle sonralar\u0131 bu tarz imar faaliyetleri yap\u0131lmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Yeni Krall\u0131k D\u00f6nemi olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan 18-20. Hanedanlar zaman\u0131nda M\u0131s\u0131r bir\u00e7ok b\u00f6lgeyi fethederek bir imparatorlu\u011fa d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015f, Mezopotamya ile olan ticari ve askeri ili\u015fkiler artm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bundan sonra Hititler ve Asurlular ba\u015fta olmak \u00fczere bir\u00e7ok devletle rekabet i\u00e7erisinde olmu\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>ANADOLU MEDEN\u0130YET HAVZASI<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Asya\u2019n\u0131n en bat\u0131s\u0131nda yer alan Anadolu\u2019ya Romal\u0131lar g\u00fcne\u015fin do\u011fdu\u011fu yer anlam\u0131na gelen Anatolia ad\u0131n\u0131 vermi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Anadolu medeniyet havzas\u0131; Mezopotamya, M\u0131s\u0131r ve Akdeniz medeniyet havzalar\u0131ndan etkilenmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ticaret yollar\u0131 \u00fczerinde k\u0131talar\u0131 birbirine ba\u011flayan Anadolu, hem \u00f6nemli su kaynaklar\u0131na, tar\u0131m arazilerine ve yer alt\u0131 kaynaklar\u0131na da sahiptir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>H\u0130T\u0130TLER<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hititlerin ilk izlerine tarihi M\u00d6 20. y\u00fczy\u0131la dayanan Ne\u015fa\u2019da yani bug\u00fcnk\u00fc K\u00fcltepe\u2019de rastlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Hititlerin k\u00f6keni, Anadolu\u2019nun en eski toplumlar\u0131ndan olan Hattilere dayan\u0131r. Hititler kendilerini Hattili anlam\u0131na gelen Hititli olarak adland\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hititler, M\u00d6 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l ile 12. y\u00fczy\u0131l aras\u0131nda \u00c7orum&#8217;da yer alan Hattu\u015fa\u015f merkezli b\u00fcy\u00fck bir imparatorluk kurmu\u015flard\u0131r. Topraklar\u0131n\u0131 Mezopotamya&#8217;ya kadar geni\u015fleterek o d\u00f6nemin en b\u00fcy\u00fck imparatorluklar\u0131ndan birini olu\u015fturmu\u015flard\u0131r. Ayr\u0131ca,<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hititler M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131larla M\u00d6 1274&#8217;te Kade\u015f Sava\u015f\u0131&#8217;n\u0131 ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirmi\u015fler, ancak iki taraf birbirine kesin bir \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fck sa\u011flayamam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bundan sonras\u0131 Hitit M\u0131s\u0131r ili\u015fkileri yumu\u015fama g\u00f6stermi\u015f ve iki devlet aras\u0131nda Kade\u015f Bar\u0131\u015f\u0131 yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu antla\u015fma tarihin bilinen ilk antla\u015fmas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130YONYALILAR<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130yonyal\u0131lar, Avrupa medeniyet havzas\u0131ndan etkilenmi\u015f olan bir Anadolu medeniyeti olarak kabul edilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 13. y\u00fcz\u00ady\u0131l\u00adda Ana\u00addo\u00adlu\u2019nun ba\u00adt\u0131\u00ads\u0131n\u00adda B\u00fc\u00ady\u00fck ve K\u00fc\u00ad\u00e7\u00fck Men\u00adde\u00adres hav\u00adza\u00adla\u00adr\u0131n\u00adda \u015fe\u00adhir dev\u00adlet\u00adle\u00adri ola\u00adrak \u00f6r\u00adg\u00fct\u00adlen\u00admi\u015f\u00adler\u00addi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Uzak b\u00f6l\u00adge\u00adler\u00adde kur\u00adduk\u00adla\u00adr\u0131 ti\u00adca\u00adret ko\u00adlo\u00adni\u00adle\u00adri sa\u00adye\u00adsin\u00adde zen\u00adgin\u00adle\u015f\u00admi\u015f\u00adler,<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ana\u00addo\u00adlu\u2019nun ba\u00adt\u0131\u00ads\u0131n\u00adda bir\u00ad\u00e7ok imar faa\u00adli\u00adye\u00adti\u00adni ger\u00ad\u00e7ek\u00adle\u015f\u00adtir\u00admi\u015f\u00adler\u00addir. Ephesus (Efes), Miletus (Milet), Teos, Phocaea (Fo\u00ad\u00e7a), Smyrna (\u0130zmir), Samos (Si\u00adsam) ve Chi\u00ados (Sa\u00adk\u0131z) \u0130yon\u00adya ken\u00adtle\u00adrin\u00adden ba\u00adz\u0131\u00adla\u00adr\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>URARTULAR<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hurri k\u00f6kenli bir topluluk olan Urartular ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta Uruatri ve Nairi ad\u0131 verilen bir\u00e7ok k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck krall\u0131ktan olu\u015fuyordu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 9. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Do\u011fu Anadolu, G\u00fcney Kafkaslar ve kuzey \u0130ran&#8217;\u0131 da i\u00e7erisine alan co\u011frafyada bir devlet kuran Urartular tarihleri boyunca Asur ba\u015fta olmak \u00fczere \u00e7e\u015fitli d\u00fc\u015fmanlarla m\u00fccadele etmi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ba\u015fkentleri Tu\u015fpa (Van) olan Urartu Devleti&#8217;nin in\u015fa etti\u011fi kaleler, saraylar, tap\u0131naklar ve su kanallar\u0131 g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze kadar ula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Urartu Devleti, M\u00d6 6. y\u00fczy\u0131lda \u0130ran&#8217;dan gelen Medler taraf\u0131ndan y\u0131k\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>FR\u0130GLER<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ege g\u00f6\u00e7leri neticesinde Anadolu\u2019ya gelip yerle\u015fen Frigler M\u00d6 8. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Sakarya Nehri \u00e7evresinde Frig Devleti\u2019ni kurmu\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Friglerin ba\u015fkentleri ismini kurucu kral Gordios\u2019dan alan Ankara s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 i\u00e7erisindeki Gordion\u2019dur. Friglerin en \u00f6nemli kral\u0131 efsanelere de konu olan Midas\u2019t\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Frig Devleti, Kafkasya\u2019dan gelen Kimmerler taraf\u0131ndan M\u00d6 7. y\u00fczy\u0131lda y\u0131k\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>L\u0130DYALILAR<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 7. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Gediz Ovas\u0131&#8217;nda kurulan Lidya Devleti&#8217;nin ba\u015fkenti Sardes&#8217;tir (Salihli).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Paray\u0131 kullanan ilk topluluk olan Lidyal\u0131lar devrin en \u00f6nemli ticaret g\u00fczergahlar\u0131ndan birisi olan Kral Yolu&#8217;na ve zengin alt\u0131n kaynaklar\u0131na sahip olmas\u0131 sayesinde \u00f6nemli bir zenginli\u011fe ula\u015fm\u0131\u015flard\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Lidya devleti M\u00d6 546 y\u0131l\u0131nda Pers Kral\u0131 Kryos (Kirus) taraf\u0131ndan y\u0131k\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>AVRUPA MEDEN\u0130YET HAVZASI<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sami dillerinde g\u00fcne\u015fin batt\u0131\u011f\u0131 yer anlam\u0131ndaki \u201cerep\u201d kelimesinden t\u00fcreyen bu ad Yunancada Europa h\u00e2lini alm\u0131\u015f ve Adalar Denizi\u2019nin bat\u0131s\u0131ndaki \u00fclkeler i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupa, kuzeyde Arktik Okyanusu, bat\u0131da Atlantik Okyanusu, g\u00fcneyde Akdeniz ve do\u011fuda Asya ile \u00e7evrili bir k\u0131tad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>K\u0131ta, tarih \u00f6ncesi devirlerden itibaren insano\u011fluna ev sahipli\u011fi yapm\u0131\u015f, Yunan ve Roma gibi k\u00f6kl\u00fc medeniyetler meydana getirmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>YUNAN \u015eEH\u0130R DEVLETLER\u0130<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ege denizinin etraf\u0131ndaki alanda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan Yunan \u015fehir devletleri, Avrupa medeniyetinin olu\u015fmas\u0131na \u00f6nemli katk\u0131larda bulunmu\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu \u015fehirlerden Atina ve Sparta b\u00f6lgede \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kan iki \u00f6nemli kentdir. Bu \u015fehirler d\u0131\u015f tehditlere kar\u015f\u0131 birlikte harekete ederken, bar\u0131\u015f zamanlar\u0131nda genellikle birbirleriyle \u00e7eki\u015fme halinde olmu\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Atina \u015eehir Devleti&#8217;nin g\u00fcc\u00fc bir donanmas\u0131 varken Spartan&#8217;\u0131n piyadelerden olu\u015fan kara ordusu vard\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Atina-Sparta rekabeti bir\u00e7ok sava\u015fa sebep oldu\u011fundan Yunan \u015fehir devletlerinin aralar\u0131nda birlik sa\u011flamas\u0131 uzun bir s\u00fcre m\u00fcmk\u00fcn olamam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>ROMALILAR<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 756&#8217;da temelleri \u0130talya&#8217;da at\u0131lan Roma Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131 M\u00d6 509 y\u0131l\u0131nda bir ihtilalle Cumhuriyet&#8217;e d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te yay\u0131lmac\u0131 bir anlay\u0131\u015f sergileyen Roma, devrin en g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc ordusunu kurmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Roma&#8217;da Cumhuriyet D\u00f6nemi M\u00d6 27&#8217;de yerini imparatorlu\u011fa b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Roma, bu iki d\u00f6nemde s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131 geni\u015fleterek eyaletlerden olu\u015fan k\u00fcresel bir devlet olmu\u015ftur. Sahip oldu\u011fu topraklarla ba\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc tutmak i\u00e7in iyi organize olmu\u015f yollar in\u015fa etmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Roma Devleti, Kavimler G\u00f6\u00e7\u00fc&#8217;yle birlikte Do\u011fu- Bat\u0131 olarak ikiye ayr\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bat\u0131 Roma, Vizigot ve Vandal sald\u0131r\u0131lar\u0131 sonucu zay\u0131flayarak MS 476&#8217;da y\u0131k\u0131lm\u0131\u015f; Do\u011fu Roma ise Fatih Sultan Mehmet&#8217;in 1453&#8217;te \u0130stanbul&#8217;u fethiyle son bulmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>MAKEDONYA<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 12. y\u00fczy\u0131ldaki Dor g\u00f6\u00e7leri ile temelleri at\u0131lan Makedon Devleti, II. Philip ile g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir ordu kurmu\u015f ve Yunanistan&#8217;\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcne hakim olmu\u015ftur. Fakat Philip&#8217;in \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcyle birlikte tekrar isyanlar ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>O\u011flu Alexander (B\u00fcy\u00fck \u0130skender) M\u00d6 4. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Yunan \u015fehir devletlerinde tekrar d\u00fczeni sa\u011flad\u0131ktan sonra do\u011fuya y\u00f6nelmi\u015ftir. Pers Devleti&#8217;ne son vermi\u015f, Asya&#8217;n\u0131n g\u00fcneyinde \u0130ndus Vadisi&#8217;ne kadar olan topraklar\u0131 ve Afrika&#8217;da M\u0131s\u0131r&#8217;\u0131 ele ge\u00e7irmi\u015ftir. Do\u011fu ve Bat\u0131 k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc birle\u015ftirerek sentez bir k\u00fclt\u00fcr (Helenistik) meydana getirmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130skender&#8217;in \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnden sonra topraklar\u0131 Diadohlar ad\u0131 verilen komutanlar\u0131 aras\u0131nda b\u00f6l\u00fc\u015f\u00fclm\u00fc\u015f ve zamanla Roma hakimiyetine girmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>T\u00dcRK\u0130STAN MEDEN\u0130YET HAVZASI<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130ranl\u0131lar ve Araplar, T\u00fcrklerin ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131 Orta Asya&#8217;y\u0131 &#8220;T\u00fcrk yurdu&#8221; anlam\u0131na gelen T\u00fcrkistan olarak adland\u0131rm\u0131\u015flard\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>6. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Bat\u0131l\u0131lar taraf\u0131ndan Turkhia (T\u00fcrkiye) olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olan b\u00f6lge, kuzeydo\u011fuda Baykal G\u00f6l\u00fc, g\u00fcneybat\u0131da Gobi \u00c7\u00f6l\u00fc&#8217;nden ba\u015flay\u0131p bat\u0131da Hazar Denizi&#8217;ne kadar uzanmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>T\u00fcrkistan&#8217;da genellikle konarg\u00f6\u00e7er h\u00e2lde ya\u015fayan T\u00fcrkler, ka\u011fan\u0131n liderli\u011finde boy federasyonu \u015feklinde \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmi\u015flerdi. Konarg\u00f6\u00e7er hayat\u0131n etkisiyle te\u015fkilat\u00e7\u0131 bir yap\u0131ya sahip olmu\u015flard\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130SK\u0130TLER<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Konarg\u00f6\u00e7er bir topluluk olan \u0130skitler M\u00d6 9. y\u00fczy\u0131lda T\u00fcrkistan&#8217;da ba\u015f g\u00f6steren k\u0131tl\u0131k ve kurakl\u0131k sebebiyle Hiung-nular&#8217;la (Hunlar) giri\u015ftikleri m\u00fccadeleyi kaybederek \u00f6nce Karadeniz&#8217;in kuzeyine g\u00f6\u00e7m\u00fc\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>At\u0131, sava\u015f alanlar\u0131nda \u00e7ok etkili kullanan \u0130skitler sonra bat\u0131ya ve g\u00fcneye do\u011fru hareketle Anadolu ve Mezopotamya&#8217;da s\u00fcvari birliklerinin kullan\u0131lmas\u0131na \u00f6nc\u00fcl\u00fck etmi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130skitler,Anadolu ve Mezopotamya&#8217;n\u0131n siyasi ve demografik yap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 da etkilemi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>ASYA HUNLARI<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 220 y\u0131l\u0131nda kurulan Asya Hun Devleti, T\u00fcrklerin Asya&#8217;n\u0131n i\u00e7lerinde kurduklar\u0131 bilinen ilk devlettir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 209 y\u0131l\u0131nda Mete&#8217;nin Ka\u011fan olmas\u0131 ile Asya Hunlar\u0131 seferler d\u00fczenleyerek \u00c7in \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu&#8217;nu yenilgiye u\u011frat\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Asya Hun Devleti tarihi, T\u00fcrk tarihi a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan ordu yap\u0131lanmas\u0131ndan devlet te\u015fkilat\u0131na kadar bir\u00e7ok alanda ilklerin ortaya konuldu\u011fu bu devirdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Asya Hunlar\u0131 \u00c7in entrikalar\u0131n\u0131n da etkisiyle artan taht kavgalar\u0131 sonucunda g\u00fcney ve kuzey olmak \u00fczere ikiye ayr\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Sonras\u0131nda hem kom\u015fular\u0131yla hem de \u00c7in&#8217;le olan m\u00fccadeleler neticesinde y\u0131k\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>S\u00dcMERLER\u0130N Y\u00d6NET\u0130M VE ORDU S\u0130STEMLER\u0130<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 3200\u2019de yaz\u0131n\u0131n mucidi olan S\u00fcmerler, devletlerin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flayacak siyasi \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmeyi de meydana getirerek d\u00fcnya tarihinin seyrini de\u011fi\u015ftirmi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>S\u00fcmerler otuzun \u00fczerinde \u015fehir ve kasaban\u0131n bulundu\u011fu G\u00fcney Mezopotamya\u2019da kurulmu\u015ftur. Her b\u00fcy\u00fck \u015fehir bir krall\u0131k gibi \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmi\u015ftir. Krallar devletin idare yetkisini ellerinde tutman\u0131n yan\u0131nda ba\u015frahip, ba\u015fkomutan ve ba\u015fyarg\u0131\u00e7 olma niteliklerine de sahiptir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kentler aras\u0131nda s\u0131n\u0131r anla\u015fmazl\u0131\u011f\u0131 sebebiyle uzun s\u00fcren sava\u015flar ya\u015fand\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan kentlerin etraf\u0131 surlarla \u00e7evrilmi\u015ftir. S\u00fcmer kentleri zamanla b\u00fcy\u00fcyerek devletle\u015fmi\u015f, bu durumda savunma endi\u015fesi artm\u0131\u015f ve d\u00fczenli asker\u00ee birlikler kurulmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sava\u015f arabal\u0131 askerler ve piyadelerden olu\u015fan S\u00fcmer ordular\u0131nda kullan\u0131lan sava\u015f aletleri ok, yay, balta, m\u0131zrak, kalkan ve mi\u011fferdir. S\u00fcmerlerde askerler \u00fcniforma benzeri k\u0131yafetler giyip ayn\u0131 t\u00fcrde silahlar kullanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>MISIRLILARIN Y\u00d6NET\u0130M VE ORDU S\u0130STEMLER\u0130<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 3. biny\u0131lda Nil havzas\u0131ndaki A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r ve Yukar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n birle\u015fmesiyle b\u00fcy\u00fck bir devlet h\u00e2line gelen Antik M\u0131s\u0131r krall\u0131kla y\u00f6netilmi\u015fti. M\u00d6 2950- 332 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda otuzun \u00fczerinde hanedan\u0131n y\u00f6netimi ele ge\u00e7irdi\u011fi d\u00f6nemler ya\u015fanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mutlak g\u00fcce sahip olan M\u0131s\u0131r krallar\u0131 M\u00d6 15. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan sonra firavun \u00fcnvan\u0131n\u0131 kullanmaya ba\u015flam\u0131\u015flard\u0131 ve adlar\u0131na an\u0131tsal mezarlar (piramitler) in\u015fa edilmi\u015ftir. M\u0131s\u0131r krallar\u0131, zamanla tanr\u0131n\u0131n yery\u00fcz\u00fcndeki temsilcisi olarak kabul edilmeye ba\u015flanm\u0131\u015f ve tanr\u0131salla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Gerekti\u011finde asker g\u00f6nderen ve kral ad\u0131na vergi toplayan valiler merkezden ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z hareket edebilmi\u015fti. Zamanla valilerin asker\u00ee y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fckleri ile mahkeme ve tap\u0131naklardaki y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fckleri ortadan kald\u0131r\u0131larak eyaletlerin ba\u015f\u0131na kral taraf\u0131ndan g\u00f6revliler atanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Asker\u00ee ve sivil \u00fcst d\u00fczey g\u00f6revlere hanedan \u00fcyesi soylular getirilmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u0131s\u0131r ordusu ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta valilerin toplad\u0131\u011f\u0131 milis kuvvetlerden olu\u015fmu\u015ftu. S\u00fcrekli sava\u015f h\u00e2li i\u00e7inde olmayan devlette d\u00fczenli bir orduya da ihtiya\u00e7 duyulmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Fakat i\u00e7 karga\u015fa ve isyanlardan ders al\u0131narak gen\u00e7lerden olu\u015fan bir ordu kurulmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u0131s\u0131r ordusunda paral\u0131 askerler ve k\u00f6le sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131lar da kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Ayr\u0131ca s\u0131n\u0131r g\u00fcvenli\u011fi i\u00e7in tehdit unsuru olan konarg\u00f6\u00e7er sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131lar orduda istihdam edilerek tehlike kayna\u011f\u0131 olmaktan \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Orduda kullan\u0131lacak metal silahlar\u0131n \u00fcretimi i\u00e7in bak\u0131r y\u00f6n\u00fcnden zengin olan b\u00f6lgeler ele ge\u00e7irilmi\u015fti. Sava\u015f aleti olarak ok, m\u0131zrak, kama ve kalkan kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. M\u0131s\u0131r ordusunu \u00e7a\u011fda\u015flar\u0131ndan g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc k\u0131lan, bu metal silahlar\u0131 yan\u0131nda atl\u0131 sava\u015f arabalar\u0131yd\u0131. K\u0131z\u0131ldeniz\u2019de g\u00fcvenli\u011fi sa\u011flamak i\u00e7in de gemiler in\u015fa edilmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu ordu sayesinde kral\u0131n otoritesini kabul etmeyen valiler itaat alt\u0131na al\u0131nm\u0131\u015f, firavunun g\u00fcvenli\u011fi sa\u011flanm\u0131\u015f ve ticaret kervanlar\u0131 her t\u00fcrl\u00fc sald\u0131r\u0131dan korunmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>AKADLARIN Y\u00d6NET\u0130M VE ORDU S\u0130STEMLER\u0130<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde Ba\u011fdat\u2019\u0131n g\u00fcneyinde kalan b\u00f6lgede M\u00d6 2350-2150 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda devlet olarak varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015f olan Akadlar krall\u0131kla y\u00f6netilmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sami k\u00f6kenliler taraf\u0131ndan kurulan devlet zamanla Mezopotamya\u2019n\u0131n tamam\u0131na h\u00e2kim olarak \u00e7ok uluslu bir yap\u0131 kazanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u015eehir devleti modelinden b\u00fcy\u00fck devlet modeline ge\u00e7en Akadlarda krallar \u201cd\u00fcnya h\u00e2kimi\u201d olarak an\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ve Akad Devleti de \u201cd\u00fcnya imparatorlu\u011fu\u201d ve \u201ctanr\u0131 krall\u0131\u011f\u0131\u201d olarak nitelendirilmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>D\u00fczenli ve g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir ordunun yan\u0131 s\u0131ra g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc y\u00f6netim organizasyonuna sahip olmalar\u0131 Akadlar\u0131 \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131karm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Akadlar ilk daim\u00ee orduyu kurmu\u015f fakat ordu ihtiya\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131lanmas\u0131 i\u00e7in d\u00fczenli bir sistem kurmam\u0131\u015flard\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kral Sargon ve onun torunu Kral Naramsin, hareket kabiliyeti olan g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc ordular\u0131yla merkezden uzak b\u00f6lgelere seferler d\u00fczenleyerek ordunun ve ba\u015fkentin ihtiyac\u0131n\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131lamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015flard\u0131. Ancak Akad n\u00fcfusunun farkl\u0131 din ve \u0131rklardan olu\u015fmas\u0131 \u00fclkede s\u0131k s\u0131k isyanlar ya\u015fanmas\u0131na sebep olmu\u015f ve bu da merkezden uzak b\u00f6lgelerdeki h\u00e2kimiyetin zay\u0131flamas\u0131na yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ordu ihtiya\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131lanmas\u0131nda s\u00fcreklilik sa\u011flanamay\u0131nca devlet, asker\u00ee g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc kaybetmi\u015f ve da\u011f kavimlerinin sald\u0131r\u0131lar\u0131 sonucu y\u0131k\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Akkad krallar\u0131n\u0131n, S\u00fcmer krallar\u0131ndan farkl\u0131 olarak \u00e7ok uzak b\u00f6lgelere seferler d\u00fczenlemi\u015f olmalar\u0131, kurduklar\u0131 devletin bir imparatorluk olarak de\u011ferlendirilmesine yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Akkadlarla birlikte s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 belirlenmi\u015f kent devleti modelinden, \u201cb\u00fct\u00fcn d\u00fcnyay\u0131\u201d y\u00f6netmeye aday bir imparatorluk d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesine ge\u00e7ildi\u011fini veya bu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncenin temellerinin at\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6yleyebiliriz.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>H\u0130T\u0130TLER\u0130N Y\u00d6NET\u0130M VE ORDU S\u0130STEMLER\u0130<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 1650-1190 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda Anadolu\u2019da varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015f olan Hititler krall\u0131kla y\u00f6netilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hitit krallar\u0131 \u00f6ld\u00fckten sonra tanr\u0131 olarak an\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, krallar\u0131n ruhlar\u0131na kurbanlar sunularak ayinler yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Kral \u00f6ld\u00fckten sonra onun soyundan gelen v\u00e2risi tahta \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>G\u00fcney Bat\u0131 Asya ve M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019la etkile\u015fimin artmas\u0131 sonucu Hitit krallar\u0131n\u0131n yetki ve otoritesi geni\u015flemi\u015fti. Krallar; b\u00fcy\u00fck kral, imparator ve tanr\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6zdesi gibi \u00fcnvanlarla an\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Krallar, F\u0131rt\u0131na Tanr\u0131s\u0131\u2019n\u0131n yery\u00fcz\u00fcndeki temsilcisi olarak ba\u015frahip ve ba\u015fkomutan \u00fcnvanlar\u0131na sahiptir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hitit Devleti\u2019nde memurlar idar\u00ee, asker\u00ee ve din\u00ee i\u015flerden sorumludur. \u00dcst d\u00fczey g\u00f6revlilerin bulundu\u011fu Panku\u015f ad\u0131 verilen bir meclis vard\u0131r. Sorumluluklar\u0131 olduk\u00e7a geni\u015f olan ve b\u00fct\u00fcn i\u015flerinde krala kar\u015f\u0131 sorumlu olan ba\u015fyard\u0131mc\u0131 konumundaki saray g\u00f6revlisi, kral ad\u0131na ba\u015fkent Hattu\u015fa\u015f\u2019a uzak olan s\u0131n\u0131r b\u00f6lgelerini idare etmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Yollar\u0131n, kanallar\u0131n ve tap\u0131naklar\u0131n bak\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 yapt\u0131rm\u0131\u015f, vergi toplam\u0131\u015f ve kalelerde asayi\u015fi sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ba\u015fka bir \u00f6nemli g\u00f6revi ise muhaf\u0131z alay\u0131 komutanl\u0131\u011f\u0131d\u0131r. Hitit ordusunun ba\u015fat unsurlar\u0131 piyadeler ve sava\u015f arabal\u0131 askerlerdir. Piyadeler, sava\u015f arabal\u0131 askerlere nispetle daha kalabal\u0131kt\u0131r. Piyadelerin temel birli\u011fi, h\u00fcr erkekler aras\u0131ndan asker\u00ee mesle\u011fe girenler ve imparatorlu\u011fun \u00e7e\u015fitli b\u00f6lgelerinden askere kaydedilenlerden olu\u015fmu\u015ftur. Sava\u015flarda as\u0131l vurucu unsurlardan olan piyadeler ayn\u0131 zamanda s\u0131n\u0131rlardaki kalelerin g\u00fcvenli\u011fini sa\u011flamak ve isyanlar\u0131 bast\u0131rmakla g\u00f6revlidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hitit askerleri sava\u015f aleti olarak pala ve baltan\u0131n yan\u0131 s\u0131ra uzun m\u0131zraklar da kullanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Hitit ordusunda kullan\u0131lan silahlar bronzdan imal edilmi\u015ftir. Hitit ordusu, d\u00fc\u015fman kuvvetlerine sava\u015f arabalar\u0131yla sald\u0131rarak onlar\u0131 zay\u0131flatt\u0131ktan sonra esas darbeyi piyadelerle indirmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hititler g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde Suriye s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131nda kalan Kade\u015f \u015fehrini M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a kar\u015f\u0131 savunmu\u015f ve sava\u015ftan bir s\u00fcre sonra iki b\u00fcy\u00fck devlet aras\u0131ndaki ilk bar\u0131\u015f antla\u015fmas\u0131 olan Kade\u015f Antla\u015fmas\u0131\u2019n\u0131 imzalam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hitit \u00fclkesinin imparatorluk karakterini yalanlamaz. Bug\u00fcne de\u011fin \u201cimparatorluk\u201d terimi \u015fu durumlar\u0131 tan\u0131mlamak i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>a) Bir merkezi iktidar\u0131n geni\u015f topraklar\u0131 ve birka\u00e7 toplumu i\u00e7ine al\u0131p, askeri fetihlerle ve zor kullanarak onlara egemen olmas\u0131, uyru\u011funa ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00fclkelerin \u00fcretim fazlas\u0131ndan yararlanmas\u0131;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>b) \u00dcst\u00fcn bir idari \u00e7er\u00e7evenin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131. \u00d6yleyse Hitit devleti daha \u00f6nce olmasa da, en az\u0131ndan yakla\u015f\u0131k 1400\u2019den itibaren kesinlikle bir imparatorluktu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>ROMALILARIN Y\u00d6NET\u0130M VE ORDU S\u0130STEMLER\u0130<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Roma Devleti, g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde \u0130talya s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 i\u00e7indeki Roma\u2019da bir \u015fehir devleti olarak kurulmu\u015f ve sonra \u00e7ok geni\u015f bir alana h\u00e2kim olmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u015eehir devleti \u00f6l\u00e7e\u011finde oldu\u011fu d\u00f6nemde krall\u0131kla y\u00f6netilmi\u015fti. Roma Devleti, 300 klandan olu\u015fmu\u015ftu ve yaln\u0131zca bu klanlardan birine \u00fcye olan yeti\u015fkin erkekler yurtta\u015fl\u0131k haklar\u0131na sahipti. Bu klanlardan birine mensup olmayanlar siyasi haklara sahip olmad\u0131klar\u0131 gibi askerlik de yapamazlard\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 509\u2019da cumhuriyet idaresine ge\u00e7ilmi\u015fti. Aristokratlar\u0131n egemen oldu\u011fu bu sistemde kral\u0131n yetkileri iki y\u00fcksek devlet memurunda toplanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Kons\u00fcl denilen bu yetkililer, idari konularda senatoya dan\u0131\u015f\u0131rlard\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 27\u2019de \u0130mparatorluk D\u00f6nemi ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bu y\u00f6netim sisteminde h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131n yetkileri artm\u0131\u015f, senatonun etkisi ise azalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Zamanla y\u00f6netim sistemi mutlak monar\u015fiye benzer bir h\u00e2l alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Paganizmin h\u00e2kim din oldu\u011fu ve ba\u015fta Casear (Sezar) olmak \u00fczere h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar\u0131n ba\u015frahip \u00fcnvan\u0131n\u0131 kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 Roma \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu\u2019nda Hristiyanl\u0131k ilk ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131nda devlet taraf\u0131ndan yasaklanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Sonralar\u0131 Roma\u2019n\u0131n evrensel imparatorluk anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131na katk\u0131da bulunaca\u011f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnden 380\u2019de resm\u00ee din olarak kabul edilmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Roma Devleti; g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc, d\u00fczenli ve disiplinli bir orduya sahipti. Ordunun \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011fu piyadelerden olu\u015fmu\u015f ve her Roma yurtta\u015f\u0131 asker kabul edilmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Zamanla askere daha fazla ihtiya\u00e7 duyulmas\u0131 \u00fczerine paral\u0131 asker istihdam\u0131 da ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Roma ordusu lejyon ad\u0131 verilen asker\u00ee birliklerden olu\u015fmu\u015f, askerler de lejyoner olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u00c7o\u011funlu\u011fu piyade olan lejyonerler, z\u0131rh, mi\u011ffer ve yak\u0131n d\u00f6v\u00fc\u015f silahlar\u0131yla donanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Roma askerleri kulland\u0131klar\u0131 mi\u011ffer, z\u0131rh, k\u0131l\u0131\u00e7 ve kalkanlar sayesinde rakip ordular kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda avantaj sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u00dcstten ve yanlardan gelebilecek sald\u0131r\u0131lara kar\u015f\u0131 Roma piyadelerinin kalkanlar\u0131n\u0131 kullanarak korunmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flayan savunma takti\u011fi, kaplumba\u011fa d\u00fczeni olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Fakat kulland\u0131klar\u0131 bu te\u00e7hizat onlar\u0131n hareket kabiliyetini k\u0131s\u0131tlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Karada g\u00fc\u00e7lenen Roma ordusu, Akdeniz h\u00e2kimiyeti i\u00e7in b\u00fcy\u00fck bir donanmayla da desteklenmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>ASYA HUN DEVLET\u0130\u2019N\u0130N Y\u00d6NET\u0130M VE ORDU S\u0130STEMLER\u0130<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski \u00c7a\u011f T\u00fcrklerinden g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze kalan yaz\u0131l\u0131 kaynak bulunmamas\u0131 dolay\u0131s\u0131yla bu d\u00f6nemde ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f olan T\u00fcrklerle ilgili bilgilerin \u00e7o\u011fu \u00c7in kaynaklar\u0131na dayanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00c7in y\u0131ll\u0131klar\u0131na g\u00f6re Hunlara ait ilk bilgiler M\u00d6 318 y\u0131l\u0131na aittir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Yaz\u0131l\u0131 kaynaklara g\u00f6re \u0130\u00e7 Asya\u2019da ya\u015fayan T\u00fcrklerin buraya h\u00e2kim olarak kurduklar\u0131 ilk devlet M\u00d6 220 y\u0131l\u0131nda kurulan Asya Hun Devleti, devletin bilinen ilk h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131 ise Teoman\u2019d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Teoman ve sonraki h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar; \u015fany\u00fc, ka\u011fan ve han gibi \u00fcnvanlar kullanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski T\u00fcrklerde \u00fclkeyi y\u00f6netme yetkisinin Tanr\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan verildi\u011fine inan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ve bu inan\u00e7 \u201ckut\u201d olarak ifade edilmi\u015ftir. Asya Hun h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131 \u201cG\u00f6k Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n, g\u00fcne\u015fin, ay\u0131n tahta \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 Tanr\u0131 \u2018kut\u2019u Tanhu\u201d olarak kabul edilmi\u015ftir. \u015eany\u00fc \u00f6l\u00fcnce yerine \u015fany\u00fcn\u00fcn en b\u00fcy\u00fck o\u011flu veya karde\u015fi ge\u00e7mi\u015f fakat v\u00e2risler aras\u0131nda \u00e7o\u011fu kez taht kavgas\u0131 ya\u015fand\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan y\u00f6netimde istikrar\u0131n sa\u011flanmas\u0131 g\u00fc\u00e7le\u015fmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski T\u00fcrk\u00e7ede \u201cil\u201d terimiyle adland\u0131r\u0131lan devletin \u201cba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131k, vatan, halk ve t\u00f6re\u201d olmak \u00fczere d\u00f6rt temel unsuru vard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>H\u00fck\u00fcmdar y\u00f6netimle ilgili kararlar al\u0131rken \u201ctoy\u201d veya \u201ckurultay\u201d ad\u0131ndaki meclise dan\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Asya Hun Devleti\u2019nde askerlik \u00f6zel bir meslek olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclmemi\u015f, orduda \u00fccretli asker istihdam edilmemi\u015ftir. B\u00fct\u00fcn idari g\u00f6revliler ayn\u0131 zamanda orduda komutanl\u0131k yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in asker\u00ee disiplin devlet mekanizmas\u0131na da yans\u0131m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. M\u00d6 209 y\u0131l\u0131nda devletin ba\u015f\u0131na ge\u00e7en Mete Han ordu sisteminde reformlar yapm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu y\u0131l, g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde T\u00fcrk Silahl\u0131 Kuvvetleri\u2019nin sembolik olarak kurulu\u015f y\u0131l\u0131 kabul edilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mete Han uygulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 onlu sistemle orduyu birliklere b\u00f6lerek komuta etmi\u015f, 10.000 ki\u015filik 40 t\u00fcmenden olu\u015fan Hun ordusunun mevcudu 400.000\u2019e eri\u015fmi\u015ftir. Boylar\u0131n asker\u00ee kuvvetleri sava\u015f esnas\u0131nda bir ordu d\u00fczenine girip ba\u015f komutan taraf\u0131ndan disiplinli bir \u015fekilde y\u00f6netilebilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mete Han, kendi icat etti\u011fi \u0131sl\u0131k \u00e7alan oku ile ordusundaki ok\u00e7ular\u0131 hareket ettirmi\u015ftir. Sava\u015flarda genellikle Turan takti\u011fi uygulanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Sahte bir geri \u00e7ekilme ile pusu kurulduktan sonra d\u00fc\u015fman ordusu \u00e7evrelenmi\u015f ve ok\u00e7ularla uzaktan vurulmu\u015ftur. Ok ve yaydan ba\u015fka m\u0131zrak, s\u00fcng\u00fc, kalkan ve k\u0131l\u0131\u00e7 da kullan\u0131lan silahlardand\u0131r. Demircilikte geli\u015fmi\u015f olduklar\u0131ndan bu madeni, silahlar\u0131n\u0131n etki g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc art\u0131rmak i\u00e7in de kullanabilmi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><tbody><tr><td>Devletler<\/td><td>Y\u00f6netim \u015eekli<\/td><td>Egemenlik Anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131<\/td><td>Me\u015fruiyet Kayna\u011f\u0131<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>S\u00fcmerler<\/td><td>Teokratik Monar\u015fi<\/td><td>Tanr\u0131sal Hak<\/td><td>Din (Tanr\u0131lar)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar<\/td><td>Teokratik Monar\u015fi<\/td><td>Tanr\u0131sal Hak<\/td><td>Din (Firavun Tanr\u0131sal)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Akadlar<\/td><td>Mutlak Monar\u015fi<\/td><td>G\u00fc\u00e7le Kazan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f Hak<\/td><td>Askeri G\u00fc\u00e7<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Hititler<\/td><td>Teokratik Monar\u015fi<\/td><td>Tanr\u0131sal Hak<\/td><td>Din<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Romal\u0131lar<\/td><td>Monar\u015fi (\u0130lk D\u00f6nemler), Cumhuriyet (Orta D\u00f6nemler), \u0130mparatorluk (Son D\u00f6nemler)<\/td><td>Halk\u0131n Oyu, Senato, \u0130mparatorun G\u00fcc\u00fc<\/td><td>Yasa, Gelenek, \u0130mparatorun Ki\u015fili\u011fi<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Asya Hunlar\u0131<\/td><td>Ka\u011fanl\u0131k (G\u00f6\u00e7ebe Federasyonu)<\/td><td>Kut (G\u00f6ktanr\u0131&#8217;n\u0131n verdi\u011fi Kutsal G\u00fc\u00e7)<\/td><td>G\u00f6ktanr\u0131, Soy, Askeri G\u00fc\u00e7<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table class=\"has-fixed-layout\"><tbody><tr><td>Devletler<\/td><td>Te\u015fkilat (Asker\u00ee Yap\u0131)<\/td><td>Te\u00e7hizat (Sava\u015f Ara\u00e7 Gere\u00e7leri)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>S\u00fcmerler<\/td><td>\u015eehir devletlerinin kendi milis kuvvetleri. Sava\u015f zamanlar\u0131nda bir araya gelerek ordular\u0131 olu\u015ftururlard\u0131.<\/td><td>Ok, yay, m\u0131zrak, balta, kalkan. Sava\u015f arabalar\u0131 kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar<\/td><td>D\u00fczenli bir orduya sahiptiler. Ok\u00e7ular, piyadeler ve sava\u015f arabal\u0131 birlikler \u00f6nemli rol oynard\u0131. Deniz kuvvetleri de \u00f6nemliydi.<\/td><td>Ok, yay, m\u0131zrak, kalkan, m\u0131zrak, sava\u015f baltas\u0131. Sava\u015f arabalar\u0131 ve gemiler kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Akadlar<\/td><td>G\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir orduya sahip olan Akadlar, geni\u015f topraklar\u0131n\u0131 korumak i\u00e7in d\u00fczenli seferler d\u00fczenlerlerdi. Piyade ve sava\u015f arabal\u0131 birlikler \u00f6nemli rol oynard\u0131.<\/td><td>Ok, yay, m\u0131zrak, kalkan, m\u0131zrak, sava\u015f baltas\u0131. Sava\u015f arabalar\u0131 kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Hititler<\/td><td>Piyade ve sava\u015f arabal\u0131 birliklerden olu\u015fan g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir orduya sahiptiler. Demir i\u015f\u00e7ili\u011finde uzmanla\u015fm\u0131\u015flard\u0131.<\/td><td>Ok, yay, m\u0131zrak, kalkan, sava\u015f baltas\u0131, demirden yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f k\u0131l\u0131\u00e7lar ve z\u0131rhlar. Sava\u015f arabalar\u0131 kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Romal\u0131lar<\/td><td>Lejyonlar ad\u0131 verilen disiplinli birliklerden olu\u015fan g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir orduya sahiptiler. Piyade a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131kl\u0131 bir orduydu.<\/td><td>Gladius (k\u0131l\u0131\u00e7), pilum (m\u0131zrak), scutum (kalkan). M\u00fchendislik yap\u0131lar\u0131 ve ku\u015fatma aletleri kullan\u0131rlard\u0131.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Asya Hunlar\u0131<\/td><td>G\u00f6\u00e7ebe bir toplum olmalar\u0131na ra\u011fmen etkili bir atl\u0131 ok\u00e7uluk takti\u011fi kullan\u0131rlard\u0131. Hafif z\u0131rhlar ve h\u0131zl\u0131 atlar kullan\u0131rlard\u0131.<\/td><td>Ok, yay, k\u0131l\u0131\u00e7, k\u0131sa m\u0131zrak.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">ESK\u0130 \u00c7A\u011e\u2019DA HUKUKUN TOPLUMSAL D\u00dcZENE ETK\u0130LER\u0130 <\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>MEZOPOTAMYA<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski \u00c7a\u011f\u2019da Mezopotamya\u2019da kurulan S\u00fcmer, Akad, Elam, Babil ve Asur devletlerinde kral\u0131n \u00fclkesini tanr\u0131lar ad\u0131na y\u00f6netti\u011fine inan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kayna\u011f\u0131n\u0131 dinden alan Mezopotamya kanunlar\u0131nda krallar, kanunlar haz\u0131rlayarak toplumsal d\u00fczeni sa\u011flamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kanunlarda genellikle k\u0131sasa k\u0131ssas prensibi esas al\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ancak baz\u0131 durumlarda su\u00e7a verilecek ceza maddi \u00f6demeye \u00e7evrilebilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kanunlar sadece erkeklerin haklar\u0131n\u0131 de\u011fil kimi durumlarda kad\u0131n haklar\u0131n\u0131 da g\u00f6zetmi\u015ftir. Kanunlarda \u00f6zel m\u00fclkiyetten aile hukukuna, can g\u00fcvenli\u011finden devlete kar\u015f\u0131 sorumluklara bir \u00e7ok konuda d\u00fczenlemeler yer alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>S\u00fcmerlerde, Laga\u015f \u015fehir devleti kral\u0131 Urkagina halk\u0131 zul\u00fcmden korumak ve toplumsal d\u00fczeni sa\u011flamak amac\u0131yla bilinen ilk yaz\u0131l\u0131 kanunlar\u0131 meydana getirdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Adaletname, talimatname gibi isimlerle an\u0131lan bu kanunlar, sonraki devlet y\u00f6neticilerine de ilham oldu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mezopotamya\u2019da kurulan Babil Devleti\u2019nin kral\u0131 Hammurabi, 282 maddeden olu\u015fan yaz\u0131l\u0131 kanunlar\u0131 S\u00fcmerlerden esinlenerek meydana getirdi. K\u0131sasa k\u0131sas prensibiyle haz\u0131rlanan bu kanunlara uymayanlar olduk\u00e7a a\u011f\u0131r \u015fekilde cezaland\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>MISIR<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da firavunlar\u0131n g\u00f6revi halk\u0131n ihtiya\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131lamak, kanunlar yapmak ve adaleti sa\u011flamakt\u0131. M\u0131s\u0131r toplumunun i\u015fleyi\u015finde hukuk kurallar\u0131 \u00f6nemli bir yer tutmas\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131n ne yaz\u0131k ki kanuni d\u00fczenlemelere dair belgeler g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze ula\u015famam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ancak ge\u00e7 d\u00f6neme ait s\u00f6zle\u015fmelerden hareketle M\u0131s\u0131r hukukunun kaideleri tespit edilebilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ciddi su\u00e7lar a\u011f\u0131r hapis ve idamla, daha hafif su\u00e7lar ise sakatlama ve k\u0131rba\u00e7lama ile cezaland\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. M\u0131s\u0131r hukuku m\u00fclkiyet, miras ve aile hukukuna dair kurallar\u0131 da i\u00e7ermi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>ANADOLU<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski \u00c7a\u011f\u2019da Anadolu\u2019da kurulan devletler hukuk sistemlerini olu\u015ftururken kom\u015fu medeniyetlerden \u00f6zellikle Mezopotamya\u2019dan etkilenmi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Toplumsal d\u00fczeni sa\u011flamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan Hitit, Urartu, Frigya, Lidya ve \u0130yon devletlerinde hukukun kayna\u011f\u0131 din\u00ee inan\u00e7t\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Su\u00e7lulara genellikle maddi cezalar uygulanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Hititlere ait kanunlar\u0131n yaz\u0131l\u0131 bir \u015fekilde g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze ula\u015fmas\u0131 Eski Anadolu hukuku a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan de\u011ferli bilgiler sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski Hitit hukuku insan\u0131 ve tar\u0131msal \u00fcretimi esas alan maddeler i\u00e7ermi\u015ftir. Sald\u0131r\u0131, h\u0131rs\u0131zl\u0131k, cinayet, b\u00fcy\u00fcc\u00fcl\u00fck, bo\u015fanma ve tar\u0131m \u00fcretimini aksatacak eylemlere kar\u015f\u0131 verilecek cezalar belirlenmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hititler, toplum d\u00fczenini sa\u011flamak ve korumak amac\u0131yla 200 maddeden olu\u015fan hukuk kurallar\u0131n\u0131 tabletlere yazd\u0131lar. Tarihsel s\u00fcre\u00e7te toplumun ihtiya\u00e7lar\u0131na g\u00f6re \u015fekillendirdikleri kanunlar\u0131na yenilerini ilave ettiler.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Anadolu hukuku a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan tar\u0131msal \u00fcretimi korumay\u0131 ama\u00e7 edinen Frig kanunlar\u0131 da \u00f6zel bir yere sahiptir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>AVRUPA<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski \u00c7a\u011f\u2019da Akdeniz \u00e7evresinde kurulan Yunan (Hellen) medeniyeti, toplumsal d\u00fczeni sa\u011flamak amac\u0131yla do\u011fu medeniyetlerinden esinlenerek kanunlar\u0131 yaz\u0131l\u0131 h\u00e2le getirmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Atinal\u0131 Solon, Spartal\u0131 Lycurgus kanun koyuculard\u0131r. Yunan mahkemelerinde evlenme-bo\u015fanma, veraset ve cinayet gibi meselelerde verilecek cezalar karara ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130talya Yar\u0131madas\u0131\u2019nda kurulan Roma Devleti\u2019nin ilk yaz\u0131l\u0131 kanunlar\u0131 12 Levha Kanunlar\u0131d\u0131r. Bu kanunlar soylular ile halk aras\u0131ndaki s\u0131n\u0131f m\u00fccadeleleri sonucunda toplumsal d\u00fczeni sa\u011flamak amac\u0131yla 12 bronz levhaya yaz\u0131ld\u0131. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz hukukunun temellerini olu\u015fturan bu kanunlar \u00f6zellikle toplumsal s\u0131n\u0131flar aras\u0131 e\u015fitlik ve m\u00fclkiyet haklar\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6n plana \u00e7\u0131karm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>T\u00dcRK\u0130STAN<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski \u00c7a\u011f\u2019da T\u00fcrkistan\u2019da yaz\u0131s\u0131z hukuk kurallar\u0131 (t\u00f6re) uygulanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Hukukun kayna\u011f\u0131 G\u00f6k Tanr\u0131 inanc\u0131d\u0131r. Toplumsal d\u00fczeni sa\u011flamak amac\u0131yla d\u00fczenlenen kanunlar (t\u00f6re) kurultaylarda belirlenmi\u015ftir. Devlet organlar\u0131 ve t\u00fcm halk t\u00f6reye uymak zorundayd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130\u015flenen su\u00e7lara verilen cezalar herkes i\u00e7in ayn\u0131 olmu\u015f, kimseye ayr\u0131cal\u0131k tan\u0131nmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. T\u00f6re hukukunda adalet, iyilik, e\u015fitlik ve ki\u015filik gibi konular \u00f6n planda tutulmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Konarg\u00f6\u00e7er ya\u015fam tarz\u0131ndan dolay\u0131 T\u00fcrk t\u00f6resinde uzun s\u00fcreli hapis cezalar\u0131 yoktur. T\u00f6reye g\u00f6re devlete isyan, askerden ka\u00e7ma, cinayet, h\u0131rs\u0131zl\u0131k, tecav\u00fcz gibi su\u00e7lar\u0131n cezas\u0131 \u00f6l\u00fcmd\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>ESK\u0130 \u00c7A\u011eLARDA A\u0130LE VE KADIN<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>MEZOPOTAMYA<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mezopotamya kanunlar\u0131nda kad\u0131nlarla erkeklere uygulanan kural ve cezalar e\u015fit de\u011fildi. Kanunlar erkeklerin menfaatine olacak \u015fekilde haz\u0131rlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>ANADOLU<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hititler toplumun yap\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131 olan aile kurumuna \u00e7ok \u00f6nem verdiler. Evlilik s\u00f6zle\u015fmesi ile kad\u0131n, erkek ve bu evlilikten do\u011facak \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n haklar\u0131n\u0131 kanunlar \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde korudular.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hitit toplumunda kad\u0131nlar \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma hayat\u0131na i\u015f\u00e7i, ebe, \u015fifac\u0131 olarak kat\u0131ld\u0131lar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>AVRUPA<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupa medeniyetlerinden biri olan Roma&#8217;da aile, paterfamilias\u0131n yani aile babas\u0131n\u0131n hakimiyeti alt\u0131nda ya\u015fayan t\u00fcm bireylerden olu\u015fuyordu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kad\u0131n\u0131n evlilik yoluyla erke\u011fin ailesine dahil olabilmesi i\u00e7in manus&#8217;un tesis edilmesi yani e\u015finin veya onun babas\u0131n\u0131n hakimiyeti alt\u0131na girdi\u011fine y\u00f6nelik bir s\u00f6zle\u015fme yap\u0131lmas\u0131 gerekirdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Roma&#8217;da kad\u0131nlar ekonomik ve sosyal haklar\u0131n\u0131, hakimiyeti alt\u0131na girmeyi kabul ettikleri vasileri arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ile kullanabilirlerdi. Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n toplum i\u00e7indeki stat\u00fcleri buna g\u00f6re belirlenirdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>T\u00dcRK\u0130STAN<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>T\u00fcrkler aile, devletin temeli olarak kabul edilirdi. Ataerkil aile yap\u0131s\u0131na sahip olan T\u00fcrklerde baban\u0131n hak ve \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fckleri di\u011fer medeniyetlerde oldu\u011fu gibi s\u0131n\u0131rs\u0131z de\u011fildi. \u015eartlar gere\u011fi konarg\u00f6\u00e7er ya\u015fam tarz\u0131 benimseyen T\u00fcrklerde kad\u0131n, erke\u011fe e\u015fit bir aile \u00fcyesiydi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">ESK\u0130 \u00c7A\u011e\u2019DA \u0130NAN\u00c7, B\u0130L\u0130M VE SANAT ANLAYI\u015eLARI<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p><a>MEZOPOTAMYA HAVZASINDA \u0130NAN\u00c7, B\u0130LM VE SANAT<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mezopotamya uygarl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n temeli S\u00fcmerler taraf\u0131ndan at\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ne var ki pek \u00e7ok alanda \u00f6nemli geli\u015fmelere \u00f6nc\u00fcl\u00fck yapan S\u00fcmerlerin ortaya koydu\u011fu sanatsal eserler ta\u015f ve a\u011fac\u0131n olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bu co\u011frafyada kerpicin kullan\u0131m\u0131 nedeniyle b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde kaybolmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Asurlar, Mezopotamya inan\u00e7 gelene\u011fini kendi ba\u015f tanr\u0131lar\u0131 Assur\u2019un etraf\u0131nda \u015fekillendirerek devam ettirmi\u015flerdir. Asur bilimine bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda Asurlar \u00f6zellikle astronomi ve t\u0131p alan\u0131nda \u00f6nemli geli\u015fmeler g\u00f6stermi\u015fler ve bu geli\u015fmeleri tabletlerine kaydetmi\u015flerdir. Asurlar saraylar\u0131n giri\u015f kap\u0131lar\u0131na lama\u015f\u015fu ad\u0131 verilen heykeller dikmi\u015flerdir. Lama\u015f\u015fu ad\u0131 verilen bu heykeller insan, bo\u011fa ve aslan ba\u015fl\u0131 olarak tasvir edilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mezopotamya\u2019daki tap\u0131naklar\u0131n kendine \u00f6zg\u00fc bir yap\u0131s\u0131 vard\u0131. Basamakl\u0131 piramit \u015feklinde olan ve ziggurat ad\u0131 verilen tap\u0131naklar, Mezopotamya halklar\u0131na S\u00fcmerlilerden kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Zigguratlar ibadet yeri, okul, ar\u015fiv, depo ve rasathane olarak kullan\u0131l\u0131rd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>&nbsp;S\u00fcmerliler gibi Asurlular da kent merkezlerine manevi g\u00fc\u00e7 kazand\u0131rmak i\u00e7in tap\u0131naklar yapt\u0131rm\u0131\u015flard\u0131. Asur \u015fehrinde t\u00fcm b\u00fcy\u00fck tanr\u0131lar i\u00e7in tap\u0131naklar in\u015fa edilmi\u015fti. \u00dclkenin ba\u015fkenti ve eyaletlerde ba\u015f tanr\u0131 Asur\u2019un yan\u0131 s\u0131ra \u0130\u015ftar, \u015eama\u015f, Sin, Adad ve Ninurta gibi \u00f6nde gelen tanr\u0131lar ad\u0131na tap\u0131naklar bulunmaktayd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>MISIR HAVZASINDA \u0130NAN\u00c7, B\u0130LM VE SANAT<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tarihi g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczden yakla\u015f\u0131k 5000 y\u0131l \u00f6ncesine dayanan M\u0131s\u0131r medeniyetinde \u00e7ok tanr\u0131l\u0131 inan\u00e7 sistemi h\u00e2kimdir ve firavunlar tanr\u0131 kral olarak kabul edilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u00d6l\u00fcmden sonraki ya\u015fama inan\u0131lan M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da \u00f6l\u00fclerin beden ve ruh b\u00fct\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc korumak maksad\u0131yla mumyalama i\u015flemi yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, \u00f6l\u00fcler de\u011ferli e\u015fyalar\u0131yla g\u00f6m\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski \u00c7a\u011f\u2019da M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da krallar ve \u00fcst dereceli g\u00f6revliler i\u00e7in piramit ad\u0131 verilen an\u0131t mezarlar in\u015fa edilmi\u015ftir. Ayr\u0131ca M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar mimari, resim, heykel ve kuyumculukta da ileri gitmi\u015fler \u00f6nemli eserler b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 3000 y\u0131llar\u0131nda kendilerine \u00f6zg\u00fc hiyeroglif yaz\u0131s\u0131 denilen resim yaz\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 kullanmaya ba\u015flayan M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar, yaz\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 Nil Nehri k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131nda yeti\u015fen papir\u00fcs bitkisi \u00fczerine yazm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski M\u0131s\u0131r d\u00f6neminden kalma mumyalar onlar\u0131n t\u0131p ilmindeki ilerlemelerinin en g\u00fczel \u00f6rne\u011fidir. Piramitler ise geometri ve matematikteki ba\u015far\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 ortaya koymu\u015ftur. M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar astronomi konusunda da olduk\u00e7a \u00f6nemli i\u015flere imza atm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Bug\u00fcn kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z g\u00fcne\u015f y\u0131l\u0131 esas\u0131na dayanan takvimi icat etmi\u015flerdir. Bir y\u0131l\u0131 on iki aya, bir ay\u0131 otuz g\u00fcne b\u00f6lm\u00fc\u015f, mevsimleri \u00fc\u00e7e ay\u0131rm\u0131\u015f ve y\u0131llar\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131n\u0131 kral de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fine g\u00f6re ayarlam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>ANADOLU HAVZASINDA \u0130NAN\u00c7, B\u0130LM VE SANAT<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Anadolu uygarl\u0131klar\u0131 i\u00e7erisinde bilinen ilk devlet olan Hititlerin inanc\u0131 \u00e7ok tanr\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r. Hititler tanr\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n insan \u00f6zelliklerine sahip oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015fler ve tanr\u0131lar\u0131 ad\u0131na g\u00fcnlerce s\u00fcren bayramlar d\u00fczenlemi\u015flerdir. Binlerce tanr\u0131ya inanan Hititler tanr\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n ad\u0131na \u00e7ok fazla tap\u0131nak yapm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hititler bilim alan\u0131nda \u00f6zellikle astronomiye ve t\u0131bba a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k vermi\u015flerdir. Do\u011fay\u0131 ve g\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fc olaylar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6zlemlemeye, hastal\u0131klar\u0131n te\u015fhis ve tedavisine \u00f6nem vermi\u015ftir. Baz\u0131 din\u00ee rit\u00fcelleri onlar\u0131n \u00f6zellikle hayvan anatomisi konusunda bilgili olmalar\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Hititler \u00e7ivi yaz\u0131s\u0131 ve hiyeroglif yaz\u0131s\u0131 kullanm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Hititler yaz\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 genellikle tahta tabletler \u00fczerine yaz\u0131yorlard\u0131, bu nedenle Hattu\u015fa\u015f k\u00fct\u00fcphanesinin b\u00fcy\u00fck b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc kaybolmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00d6 9. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Do\u011fu Anadolu b\u00f6lgesinde Van merkezli olarak kurulan Urartulular kaleleri, saraylar\u0131, yaz\u0131tlar\u0131, mezarlar\u0131, su kanallar\u0131 ve barajlar\u0131 ile \u00f6nemli izler b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Sanatta ileri bir noktaya ula\u015fan Urartulular duvarlar\u0131n\u0131 motiflerle s\u00fcslemi\u015f, maden i\u015fleme sanat\u0131nda ileri seviyede eserler vermi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u00c7ok tanr\u0131l\u0131 bir inan\u00e7 sistemine sahip olan Urartulular inan\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 sava\u015f tanr\u0131s\u0131 olan ba\u015f tanr\u0131lar\u0131 Haldi\u2019nin etraf\u0131nda \u015fekillendirmi\u015ftir. Urartularda mezarlar geni\u015f ve y\u00fcksek bir salon ile bunun \u00e7evresindeki odalardan olu\u015furdu. \u0130\u00e7ine \u00e7ok say\u0131da bireyin g\u00f6m\u00fclebildi\u011fi bu oda-mezar anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 ahiret inanc\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6stergesidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bulunduklar\u0131 \u00e7etin co\u011frafi \u015fartlara ra\u011fmen tar\u0131m\u0131 etkili k\u0131lacak teknikler geli\u015ftirmeleri Urartulular\u0131n bilimi g\u00f6z ard\u0131 etmediklerini g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. \u00d6zellikle g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze de\u011fin ula\u015fan \u015eamran Kanal\u0131 (Van) bunun en g\u00fczel kan\u0131tlar\u0131ndand\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>AVRUPA HAVZASINDA \u0130NAN\u00c7, B\u0130LM VE SANAT<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u00c7ok tanr\u0131l\u0131 inanca sahip olan Yunanl\u0131lar, tanr\u0131lar\u0131 ad\u0131na d\u00f6rt y\u0131lda bir olimpiyatlar d\u00fczenlemi\u015flerdir. \u0130nan\u00e7 sistemlerinin \u015fekillenmesinde Mezopotamya ve M\u0131s\u0131r inanc\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6nemli etkileri s\u00f6z konusudur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>B\u00fcy\u00fck bir uygarl\u0131k kuran Yunanl\u0131lar, sanatta \u00f6zellikle mimari, heykel ve seramik gibi alanlarda ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 eserler ortaya koymu\u015flard\u0131r. Yunan sanat\u0131 kendilerinden sonraki uygarl\u0131\u011fa ilham ve \u00f6rnek olmu\u015ftur. Yunanl\u0131lar; tap\u0131naklar, tiyatrolar, agoralar, hazine binalar\u0131, stadyumlar vb. g\u00f6steri\u015fli ve dikkat \u00e7ekici eserler ortaya koymu\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tanr\u0131 ve insan heykelleri yapm\u0131\u015flar, tap\u0131naklar\u0131n duvarlar\u0131n\u0131 kabartma ve resimlerle s\u00fcslemi\u015flerdir. Do\u011fu k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcnden etkilenerek mitolojik fig\u00fcrlerle s\u00fcsledikleri vazolar yapm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Yunanl\u0131lar, Do\u011fu medeniyetlerinin temelini att\u0131\u011f\u0131 bilimleri daha sistematik h\u00e2le getirmi\u015f, matematik ve astronominin ilerlemesini sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Astronomiyi bilim dal\u0131 h\u00e2line getirmi\u015flerdir. M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da kullan\u0131lan g\u00fcne\u015f y\u0131l\u0131 esas\u0131na dayanan takvimi ve yirmi iki harften olu\u015fan alfabenin temeli say\u0131lan Fenike alfabesini geli\u015ftirmi\u015flerdir. Sokrates, Platon ve Aristoteles en \u00fcnl\u00fc felsefecileridir. T\u0131p alan\u0131nda da Hipokrat \u00f6nemli \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar yapm\u0131\u015f, hastal\u0131klar\u0131n do\u011fal bir durumdan kaynakland\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ifade ederek modern t\u0131bb\u0131n temellerini atm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>T\u00dcRK\u0130STAN HAVZASINDA \u0130NAN\u00c7, B\u0130LM VE SANAT<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski \u00c7a\u011f\u2019da T\u00fcrkistan\u2019da ya\u015fayan T\u00fcrkler aras\u0131nda yayg\u0131n olarak G\u00f6k Tanr\u0131 inanc\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Ayr\u0131ca \u015eamanizm, atalar k\u00fclt\u00fc ve tabiat g\u00fc\u00e7lerine inanma da inan\u00e7 sistemleri i\u00e7erisinde yer alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>G\u00f6k Tanr\u0131y\u0131 tek yarat\u0131c\u0131 olarak g\u00f6ren T\u00fcrkler y\u0131l\u0131n belli zamanlar\u0131nda hem G\u00f6k Tanr\u0131 hem de atalar\u0131 i\u00e7in kurban kesmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ayr\u0131ca T\u00fcrkler g\u00fcne\u015f ve ay ile baz\u0131 nehir, da\u011f ve tepeleri kutsal saym\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Atalar\u0131n\u0131n ruhlar\u0131na sayg\u0131 duymu\u015f, atalar\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6ld\u00fckten sonra da kendilerini koruduklar\u0131na inanm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Bundan dolay\u0131 da mezarlara yap\u0131lan herhangi bir sayg\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131 sava\u015f nedeni saym\u0131\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u00d6l\u00fcmden sonraki hayata inanan T\u00fcrkler \u00f6l\u00fclerini atlar\u0131yla beraber kurgan ad\u0131 verilen oda \u015feklindeki mezarlara g\u00f6mm\u00fc\u015f ve mezarlar\u0131n \u00fczerine balbal ta\u015f\u0131 (\u00f6ld\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc d\u00fc\u015fman say\u0131s\u0131 kadar) dikmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Konarg\u00f6\u00e7er ya\u015famdan dolay\u0131 g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze ancak ta\u015f\u0131nabilir malzemeler b\u0131rakan T\u00fcrkler kulland\u0131klar\u0131 kemer tokalar\u0131n\u0131, han\u00e7erlerini, k\u0131l\u0131\u00e7 ve kap kacaklar\u0131n\u0131 hayvan motifleriyle ve her boya \u00f6zel olan tamgalarla s\u00fcslemi\u015flerdir. Kakmac\u0131l\u0131k, kuyumculuk, demircilik ve dokumac\u0131l\u0131kta geli\u015fmi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Paz\u0131r\u0131k Kurgan\u0131\u2019ndan \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan d\u00fcnyan\u0131n en eski hal\u0131s\u0131 \u00f6rne\u011finden anla\u015f\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi hal\u0131 kilim dokumac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131na \u00f6nem vermi\u015f, hal\u0131 motiflerine farkl\u0131 anlamlar y\u00fcklemi\u015flerdir. Tahta \u00e7\u0131kma t\u00f6renlerinde T\u00fcrk ka\u011fanlar\u0131n\u0131 hal\u0131 \u00fczerinde tahta kald\u0131rm\u0131\u015f, zaman zaman hal\u0131 motiflerinin aras\u0131na gizledikleri \u015fifrelerle ileti\u015fim kurmu\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131 bir yap\u0131ya sahip olan T\u00fcrkler bak\u0131r ve demirden d\u00f6nemin en ileri silahlar\u0131n\u0131 \u00fcretmi\u015f, kulland\u0131klar\u0131 kama, k\u0131l\u0131\u00e7, mi\u011ffer ve z\u0131rhlar\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fik motiflerle s\u00fcslemi\u015flerdir. Tarihte ilk defa at\u0131 evcille\u015ftiren T\u00fcrkler d\u00f6nemin ko\u015fullar\u0131nda hayat\u0131 kolayla\u015ft\u0131ran at ko\u015fum tak\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 ve at arabas\u0131n\u0131 da icat etmi\u015flerdir<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>T\u00fcrkler \u00f6b\u00fcr d\u00fcnyada ikinci bir hayat\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131na (\u00e2hiret) ve ruhlar\u0131n ebedili\u011fine inan\u0131yorlard\u0131. Eski T\u00fcrk\u00e7ede (G\u00f6k-T\u00fcrk, Uygur) ruh, can m\u00e2nas\u0131nda \u201ctin\u201d kelimesi kullan\u0131l\u0131yordu. Bu, ayn\u0131 zamanda \u201cnefes\u201d demekti, \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc nefesin kesilmesi, ruhun bedenden \u00e7\u0131k\u0131p u\u00e7mas\u0131 \u015feklinde tasavvur ediyorlar. B\u00f6ylece bazen \u201c\u00f6ld\u00fc\u201d yerine \u201cu\u00e7tu\u201d diyorlard\u0131. Ruhlar\u0131 \u00f6b\u00fcr d\u00fcnyaya g\u00f6\u00e7en atalar\u0131n orada rahats\u0131z edilmemeleri, iyi ya\u015famalar\u0131 l\u00e2z\u0131md\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski T\u00fcrk takvimi, her biri bir hayvan ad\u0131 ile an\u0131lan \u201812 y\u0131ll\u0131k\u2019 devre esas\u0131na dayan\u0131yordu. Takvim 12 y\u0131lda bir ba\u015fa d\u00f6ner. 1 y\u0131l 365 g\u00fcn, 5 saat olarak kabul edilirdi. G\u00fcn\u00fcn ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131 gece yar\u0131s\u0131 idi. Y\u0131lba\u015f\u0131 22 Aral\u0131k (k\u0131\u015f\u0131n g\u00fcnd\u00fcz\u00fcn uzamaya ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 ilk g\u00fcn) idi. Asl\u0131nda Ay y\u0131l\u0131na dayand\u0131\u011f\u0131 s\u00f6ylenen bu 12 Hayvanl\u0131 T\u00fcrk Takviminin G\u00f6k-T\u00fcrkler zaman\u0131nda G\u00fcne\u015f y\u0131l\u0131na \u00e7evrildi\u011fi anla\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tanr\u0131 Da\u011flar\u0131n\u0131n zirvesinde bulunan Saymal\u0131 Ta\u015f, T\u00fcrk tarihinin en eski izlerini ta\u015f\u0131yan bir yer konumundad\u0131r. Eski T\u00fcrklerin bu da\u011f zirvesine \u00e7\u0131karak tengriye kurban adamas\u0131 ve kayalar\u0131n \u00fczerine resimler \u00e7izmesi, T\u00fcrk tarihinin olduk\u00e7a eski ve k\u00f6kl\u00fc bir medeniyete dayand\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n bir g\u00f6stergesi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>T\u00fcrkler evreni kubbe \u015feklinde d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015fler, yurt ad\u0131n\u0131 verdikleri \u00e7ad\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131 da kubbe \u015feklinde yapm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>D\u00fcnyan\u0131n bilinen en eski hal\u0131s\u0131 M.\u00d6. V-IV. y.y. olarak tarihlenen Orta Asya\u2019da Paz\u0131r\u0131k Kurganlar\u0131 ad\u0131 verilen an\u0131t mezarlarda yap\u0131lan arkeolojik kaz\u0131larda bulunmu\u015ftur. Hun kavimlerine ait olan bu mezarda ele ge\u00e7irilen hal\u0131 ayn\u0131 zamanda d\u00fcnyan\u0131n en eski d\u00fc\u011f\u00fcml\u00fc hal\u0131s\u0131d\u0131r. Paz\u0131r\u0131k hal\u0131s\u0131, hayvan ve insan fig\u00fcrleri ile bitkisel ve geometrik motifler kullan\u0131larak dokunmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">KONARG\u00d6\u00c7ERL\u0130\u011e\u0130N T\u00dcRK K\u00dcLT\u00dcR\u00dcNE ETK\u0130LER\u0130<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Kereg\u00fc, kerek\u00fc ve yurd ad\u0131 verilen ve bir ah\u015fap d\u00fczenekten meydana getirilen yuvarlak planl\u0131 karkas\u0131n \u00fczerine kal\u0131n ke\u00e7e \u00f6rt\u00fcl\u00fclerle kaplanan bu \u00e7ad\u0131rlar T\u00fcrklerin bar\u0131naklar\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski T\u00fcrklerin sosyal hayat\u0131 incelendi\u011finde, ailelerin aile b\u00fcy\u00fckleriyle birlikte birka\u00e7 \u00e7ad\u0131rdan olu\u015fan obalarda ya\u015fad\u0131klar\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir. Bu obalarda ayn\u0131 soydan gelen di\u011fer ki\u015filere ait \u00e7ad\u0131rlarda bulunuyordu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>E\u011fer erkek \u00e7ocuk evlenirse kendi ailesiyle birlikte farkl\u0131 \u00e7ad\u0131ra ta\u015f\u0131nmaktayd\u0131. Evin en k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck erkek \u00e7ocu\u011fu evlense dahi evlendikten sonra da k\u00f6l unvan\u0131yla anne babas\u0131yla birlikte ya\u015famaya devam eder.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>T\u00fcrkistan\u2019\u0131n sert karasal iklimi, otlaklar\u0131n azl\u0131\u011f\u0131, boylar aras\u0131ndaki m\u00fccadeleler, hayvan hastal\u0131klar\u0131, siyasi m\u00fccadeleler gibi \u00e7e\u015fitli fakt\u00f6rler T\u00fcrklerin ya\u015fam tarzlar\u0131nda belirleyici olmu\u015ftur. T\u00fcrkler yerle\u015fik ya\u015fama ge\u00e7meden \u00f6nce hayat tarz\u0131 olarak konarg\u00f6\u00e7erli\u011fi benimsemi\u015flerdir. T\u00fcrkistan\u2019da ya\u015fayan T\u00fcrk boylar\u0131n\u0131n ekonomileri hayvanc\u0131l\u0131\u011fa dayal\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Yerle\u015fik ya\u015fam tarz\u0131 d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki ya\u015fam bi\u00e7imleri g\u00f6\u00e7ebelik ve konarg\u00f6\u00e7erliktir. Hayvan s\u00fcr\u00fclerini otlatmak ve ge\u00e7ici yerle\u015fimler kurmak amac\u0131yla d\u00fczenli olarak yer de\u011fi\u015ftiren topluluklara g\u00f6\u00e7ebe, mevsime ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak iki b\u00f6lge (yaylak-k\u0131\u015flak) aras\u0131nda gidip gelen topluluklara da konarg\u00f6\u00e7er denir<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>B\u00fcy\u00fck Sel\u00e7uklu Devleti\u2019nin siyaseti sonucunda, g\u00f6\u00e7le birlikte Anadolu\u2019ya gelen ve buralarda yerle\u015fik ya\u015fama ge\u00e7irilen T\u00fcrkler, yerle\u015ftirildikleri co\u011frafyaya g\u00f6re isimlendirilmi\u015flerdir. Ancak genel anlamda g\u00f6\u00e7er T\u00fcrk kabileleri, T\u00fcrkmen ve Y\u00f6r\u00fck isimleriyle bilinmektedirler.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>At, bozk\u0131r\u0131n en \u00f6nemli unsurudur. Sava\u015f arac\u0131 ve binek hayvan\u0131 olmas\u0131, etinden ve s\u00fct\u00fcnden faydalan\u0131lmas\u0131 bak\u0131m\u0131ndan \u00f6nemli bir konuma sahiptir. Di\u011fer \u00f6nemli unsur koyundur. Koyun y\u00fcn\u00fcnden hem giyecekler hem de dokuma hal\u0131lar yapm\u0131\u015f, bunlar\u0131 satarak ekonomilerine katk\u0131 sa\u011flam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u00c7ad\u0131rlarda oturma, dinlenme, yatma, yemek pi\u015firme faaliyetlerinin tamam\u0131 \u00e7ad\u0131r i\u00e7erisinde ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmektedir. \u00c7ad\u0131r\u0131n orta yerinde \u201ckorluk \u2018\u2019ad\u0131 verilen ate\u015f ve onun \u00fczerinde baca bulunur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>T\u00fcrkler aras\u0131nda s\u0131n\u0131f ayr\u0131m\u0131 yap\u0131lmam\u0131\u015f, eli silah tutan herkes asker say\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Konarg\u00f6\u00e7er ya\u015fam T\u00fcrkleri sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131, sab\u0131rl\u0131, disiplinli, te\u015fkilat\u00e7\u0131, cesur bir millet yapm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu ya\u015fam tarz\u0131 T\u00fcrklere h\u0131zl\u0131 ve toplu hareket etme yetene\u011fi de kazand\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Aile, konarg\u00f6\u00e7er T\u00fcrklerin toplum yap\u0131s\u0131ndaki en temel birimdir<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Konarg\u00f6\u00e7er T\u00fcrk topluluklar\u0131 aras\u0131nda sosyal tabakala\u015fma yoktu. Ailelerin birle\u015fmesiyle s\u00fclaleler, s\u00fclalelerin birle\u015fmesiyle kabileler, kabilelerin birle\u015fmesiyle boylar, boylar\u0131n birle\u015fmesiyle de devlet te\u015fkilat\u0131 ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sosyal yap\u0131<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ogu\u015f: Aile<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Urug: S\u00fclaleler birli\u011fi<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Boy: Kabileler birli\u011fi<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Budun: Boylar Federasyonu<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130l: Devlet<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>T\u00fcrklerin ya\u015fam\u0131nda ata binmenin ve ok atman\u0131n \u00f6nemi \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fckt\u00fcr. Ok atma ve biniciklik faaliyetleri d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda cirit atma, g\u00fclle atma, g\u00fclle atma, g\u00fcre\u015f, labut atmak, g\u00f6kb\u00f6r\u00fc ve \u00e7evgen oynamak gibi spor faaliyetleri ile de u\u011fra\u015fm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Konarg\u00f6\u00e7er T\u00fcrkler hayvan eti, bitkiler ve tah\u0131llarla beslenmi\u015f, en \u00e7ok da et t\u00fcketmi\u015ftir. Yahni ve tutma\u00e7 T\u00fcrkler taraf\u0131ndan sevilen yemeklerdendir. S\u00fctl\u00fc dar\u0131, peynir, yo\u011furt, ya\u011f vb. konarg\u00f6\u00e7er hayat\u0131n vazge\u00e7ilmez yiyecekleri aras\u0131ndad\u0131r. \u0130\u00e7ecek olarak ise k\u0131srak s\u00fct\u00fcnden elde edilen k\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 tercih etmi\u015flerdir. T\u00fcrkler elbiseye ton (don) demi\u015f, giysilerini yaparken kuzu, koyun, s\u0131\u011f\u0131r ve tilki derisi ile koyun, ke\u00e7i ve deve y\u00fcn\u00fcnden yararlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Romal\u0131lar keten g\u00f6mle\u011fi ilk defa Avrupa Hunlar\u0131nda g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Konarg\u00f6\u00e7er ya\u015famda pantolon ve ceket \u00f6nemli giysilerdendir. T\u00fcrkler ayaklar\u0131na deriden yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f \u00e7izme veya \u00e7aruk (\u00e7ar\u0131k) giymi\u015f, ba\u015flar\u0131na b\u00f6rk denilen ba\u015fl\u0131k takm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde Anadolu\u2019da konarg\u00f6\u00e7er ya\u015fam\u0131 benimseyen T\u00fcrkler \u201cy\u00f6r\u00fck\u201d ad\u0131yla bilinir. Toroslardaki yaylalarda konarg\u00f6\u00e7er bi\u00e7imde ya\u015fayan Sar\u0131ke\u00e7ili y\u00f6r\u00fckleri g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde konarg\u00f6\u00e7er ya\u015fam k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc devam ettiren topluluklar\u0131n son temsilcilerindendir.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<div class=\"mh-excerpt\"><p>Bu yaz\u0131m\u0131zda g\u00fcncel m\u00fcfredata g\u00f6re haz\u0131rlad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z\u00a09. s\u0131n\u0131f tarih dersi 2. \u00fcnitesi\u00a0olan\u00a0Eski \u00c7a\u011f Medeniyetleri \u00fcnitesinin\u00a0\u00f6zet ders notlar\u0131n\u0131\u00a0payla\u015f\u0131yoruz.\u00a09. s\u0131n\u0131f tarih kitab\u0131 \u00f6zet pdf\u00a0ders notlar\u0131 sayesinde derslerde daha <a class=\"mh-excerpt-more\" href=\"https:\/\/tarihkursu.com\/index.php\/2025\/11\/07\/9-sinif-tarih-ii-unite-eski-cag-medeniyetleri-ders-notlari\/\" title=\"9. 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