{"id":1716,"date":"2024-11-04T19:34:12","date_gmt":"2024-11-04T16:34:12","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/tarihkursu.com\/?p=1716"},"modified":"2024-11-04T19:34:13","modified_gmt":"2024-11-04T16:34:13","slug":"11-sinif-tarih-2-unite-degisim-caginda-avrupa-ve-osmanli","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/tarihkursu.com\/index.php\/2024\/11\/04\/11-sinif-tarih-2-unite-degisim-caginda-avrupa-ve-osmanli\/","title":{"rendered":"11. S\u0131n\u0131f Tarih 2. \u00dcnite De\u011fi\u015fim \u00c7a\u011f\u0131nda\u00a0Avrupa ve Osmanl\u0131"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>Bu yaz\u0131m\u0131zda g\u00fcncel m\u00fcfredata g\u00f6re haz\u0131rlad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z\u00a0<strong>11. s\u0131n\u0131f tarih dersi 2. \u00fcnitesi\u00a0<\/strong>olan<strong>\u00a0De\u011fi\u015fim \u00c7a\u011f\u0131nda\u00a0Avrupa ve Osmanl\u0131\u00a0<\/strong>\u00fcnitesinin<strong> ders notlar\u0131n\u0131\u00a0<\/strong>payla\u015f\u0131yoruz.\u00a0<strong>11. s\u0131n\u0131f tarih kitab\u0131 \u00f6zet pdf\u00a0<\/strong>ders notlar\u0131 sayesinde derslerde daha ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 olacaks\u0131n\u0131z.\u00a0<strong>G\u00fcncel 11. s\u0131n\u0131f Tarih ders kitab\u0131na\u00a0<\/strong>uygun olarak haz\u0131rlad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z\u00a0<strong>De\u011fi\u015fim \u00c7a\u011f\u0131nda\u00a0Avrupa ve Osmanl\u0131 \u00f6zet ders notlar\u0131\u00a0<\/strong>a\u015fa\u011f\u0131daki konular\u0131 kapsamaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>ROMA KATOL\u0130K K\u0130L\u0130SES\u0130 VE YEN\u0130 \u00c7A\u011e\u2019DA AVRUPA<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>WESTPHALIA (VESTFALYA) BARI\u015eI VE MODERN DEVLETLER HUKUKUNUN DO\u011eU\u015eU<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>AVRUPA\u2019DAK\u0130 GEL\u0130\u015eMELER KAR\u015eISINDA OSMANLI DEVLET\u0130<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>OSMANLI DEVLET\u0130\u2019NDE \u00c7\u00d6Z\u00dcLME BEL\u0130RT\u0130LER\u0130<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>OSMANLI DEVLET\u0130\u2019NDE \u00c7\u00d6Z\u00dcLMEY\u0130 \u00d6NLEME \u00c7ABALARI<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>LALE DEVR\u0130 (1718-1730)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>OSMANLI DEVLET\u0130 VE MATBAA<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>OSMANLI \u0130L\u0130M-\u0130RFAN \u0130NSANLARI<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">11. S\u0131n\u0131f Tarih Dersi 2. \u00dcnite<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>AVRUPA\u2019DA F\u0130KR\u0130 VE MANEV\u0130 ALANDA GEL\u0130\u015eMELER<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bat\u0131 Roma \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu, Kavimler G\u00f6\u00e7\u00fc sonras\u0131nda y\u0131k\u0131l\u0131nca Antik \u00c7a\u011f k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fc yok olma tehlikesiyle kar\u015f\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131ya kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>&#8220;Kilise&#8221;, Avrupa\u2019da Eski D\u00fcnya\u2019n\u0131n y\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131 i\u00e7inde Antik \u00c7a\u011f\u2019\u0131n k\u00fclt\u00fcr de\u011ferlerini ele al\u0131p kurtarm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>K\u00fclt\u00fcrel birikimi olmayan gen\u00e7 kavimler kilisenin arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla Eski D\u00fcnya\u2019n\u0131n de\u011ferlerini benimseyerek yeti\u015fmi\u015flerdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Antik k\u00fclt\u00fcre ait d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerden sadece kilisenin uygun buldu\u011fu ve m\u00fcsaade etti\u011fi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceler ayakta kalabilmi\u015f, kiliseye ayk\u0131r\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceler ise kesin olarak terk edilmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kilise, serbest d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmenin \u00f6n\u00fcnde bir engel olu\u015fturarak kendi \u00fcretti\u011fi bilgiyi halka yaym\u0131\u015f, bunun d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndakileri reddederek engellemi\u015fti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu da skolastik d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncenin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131na neden olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>End\u00fcljans:<\/strong> Orta \u00c7a\u011f Avrupa\u2019s\u0131nda Papan\u0131n satt\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00fcnah \u00e7\u0131karma, af belgesidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Aforoz: <\/strong>Hristiyanl\u0131kta kilise taraf\u0131ndan verilen \u201cdinden \u00e7\u0131karma\u201d cezas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Enterdi: <\/strong>Papa\u2019n\u0131n Hristiyan bir \u00fclkeyi halk\u0131 ile birlikte dinden \u00e7\u0131karmas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Engizisyon:<\/strong> Katolik kilisesine ba\u011fl\u0131 din\u00ee mahkemelerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>YEN\u0130 \u00c7A\u011e AVRUPASI&#8217;NDA HALK<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupa\u2019da toplum iki s\u0131n\u0131fa b\u00f6l\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ruhban ve aristokratlar\u0131n olu\u015fturdu\u011fu birinci s\u0131n\u0131f insanlar ve<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>yoksul halk\u0131n olu\u015fturdu\u011fu ikinci s\u0131n\u0131f insanlar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Soylular ve rahipler maddi ve manevi a\u00e7\u0131dan halk\u0131 s\u00f6m\u00fcrmekteydiler.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Halk tabakas\u0131n\u0131n kendini geli\u015ftirip de\u011fi\u015ftirebilece\u011fi b\u00fct\u00fcn alanlar kapat\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ayd\u0131nlanma ile birlikte \u00f6zg\u00fcr d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncenin \u00f6n\u00fc a\u00e7\u0131larak kiliseye kar\u015f\u0131 alternatif d\u00fcnya g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc olu\u015fturulmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ayd\u0131nlanmayla birlikte y\u00fckselen burjuvazi, yeni ekonomik alanlar a\u00e7m\u0131\u015f ve toplumda bir orta s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n do\u011fmas\u0131na neden olmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>FEODAL\u0130TE<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Feodalite; siyasal ve asker\u00ee g\u00fcc\u00fc elinde bulunduran, topra\u011f\u0131n m\u00fclkiyetine veya imtiyaz\u0131na sahip olan bir seny\u00f6rler (derebeyler) ile bu s\u0131n\u0131fa ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 k\u00f6leler s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n olu\u015fturdu\u011fu idari d\u00fczendir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu d\u00fczenin kurulu\u015fuyla Avrupa\u2019da siyasal birlik bozulmu\u015f, k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck y\u00f6netim birimleri ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupa\u2019da Orta \u00c7a\u011f boyunca h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcren feodalite (derebeylik) XV. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan itibaren yerini mutlak krall\u0131klara b\u0131rakt\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Feodalitenin \u00f6nemini kaybetmesiyle birlikte Yeni \u00c7a\u011f Avrupas\u0131\u2019nda birtak\u0131m d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcmler ya\u015fanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcmlerin ya\u015fanmas\u0131nda Co\u011frafi Ke\u015fifler, barutun ate\u015fli silahlarda kullan\u0131lmas\u0131, h\u00fcmanizm (insanc\u0131l\u0131k) ve sek\u00fclerle\u015fme gibi geli\u015fmeler etkili olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>R\u00d6NESANS<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XV. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan itibaren ilk olarak \u0130talya&#8217;da H\u00fcmanizmin etkisiyle&nbsp; ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan, \u0130lk \u00c7a\u011f&#8217;\u0131n klasik k\u00fclt\u00fcr ve sanat\u0131na dayanan bilim ve sanat ak\u0131m\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>R\u00f6nesans, daha \u00e7ok edebiyat ve g\u00fczel sanatlar alan\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fclen yenilik ve geli\u015fme hareketidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>R\u00f6nesans hareketlerinin ba\u015flamas\u0131na ticari faaliyetler sonucu zenginle\u015fen mesen s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck katk\u0131s\u0131 olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Nedenleri:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Co\u011frafi Ke\u015fiflerle zenginle\u015fen burjuva s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n mesen denilen koruyucu aileler olu\u015fturmas\u0131,<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Matbaan\u0131n geli\u015fmesi ve ka\u011f\u0131d\u0131n yayg\u0131nla\u015fmas\u0131,<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Arka arkaya dahi denilebilecek sanat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n yeti\u015fmesi,<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130stanbul&#8217;un fethi ile baz\u0131 bilim adamlar\u0131n\u0131n \u0130talya&#8217;ya gitmesi,<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>End\u00fcl\u00fcs Emevileri\u2019nin Bat\u0131y\u0131 etkilemesi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eski Yunan ve Roma eserlerin incelenmesi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Sonu\u00e7lar\u0131:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u00d6zg\u00fcr d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncenin temeli at\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupa \u00fclkelerinde bilim, sanat, edebiyat alanlar\u0131nda yeni bir d\u00fcnya g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Skolastik d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce terk edildi. Deney ve g\u00f6zleme dayanan pozitif d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce bu sayede ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Reform hareketlerine zemin haz\u0131rland\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Osmanl\u0131 Devleti ise R\u00f6nesans&#8217;tan fazla etkilenmedi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Machiavelli (1469-1527)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Machiavelli (Makyavelli) hi\u00e7bir etik kurala ba\u011fl\u0131 olmayan ve s\u0131n\u0131rs\u0131z g\u00fc\u00e7 sahibi bir devlet yap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n ya\u015fama ge\u00e7irilmesini \u00f6ne s\u00fcrd\u00fc.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Onun ba\u015fl\u0131ca amac\u0131, yabanc\u0131 devletlerin etki ve i\u015fgallerinden kurtulmu\u015f ulusal ve g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir \u0130talyan devletinin kurulmas\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Machiavelli g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerini dilimize \u201cH\u00fck\u00fcmdar (Prens)&#8221; olarak \u00e7evrilen eserinde ortaya koydu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Machiavelli\u2019ye g\u00f6re h\u00fck\u00fcmdar kendisini erdemli bir ki\u015fi olarak tan\u0131tmal\u0131d\u0131r ama gerekti\u011finde hi\u00e7 de \u00f6yle davranmamal\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Dinin toplumu bir arada tutan i\u015flevi olmas\u0131ndan dolay\u0131 h\u00fck\u00fcmdar kendisini, ger\u00e7ekte \u00f6yle olmasa bile dindar bir ki\u015fi olarak g\u00f6stermelidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Paral\u0131 askerler yerine yurtta\u015flardan kurulu d\u00fczenli bir ordu kurulmal\u0131, askerler e\u011fitimli ve disiplinli olmal\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Machiavelli\u2019ye g\u00f6re devletler aras\u0131 ili\u015fkilerde devlet, amac\u0131na ula\u015fmak i\u00e7in her yolu deneyerek s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 i\u00e7inde ve d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda g\u00fc\u00e7 kullanmal\u0131 ve hukuk d\u0131\u015f\u0131 kurallara ba\u015fvurmal\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hukuka ba\u015fvurmada devletin \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131 g\u00f6zetilmelidir. Devletler aras\u0131 sorunlar\u0131n \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fcnde yalan dolan yetmez ise tek \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm yolu sava\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Thomas Moore (1478-1535)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Utopia (\u00dctopya) adl\u0131 eserinde \u00f6zel m\u00fclkiyetin bulunmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 toplumsal bir d\u00fczen tasarlayan More, koyu bir Katolik Hristiyan olarak bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc dine dayand\u0131rmaktayd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>B\u00f6yle d\u00fc\u015fsel bir \u00fclkede hi\u00e7 kimse toprak sahibi de\u011fildi fakat herkes i\u015f\u00e7iydi ve \u00fcretim bir plana ba\u011fl\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u00dcretilen mallar para kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 olmaks\u0131z\u0131n herkesin gereksinimine g\u00f6re da\u011f\u0131t\u0131lacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>&nbsp;More a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan y\u00f6netici, se\u00e7imle i\u015fba\u015f\u0131na gelmeli ve g\u00f6revini k\u00f6t\u00fcye kullanmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 s\u00fcrece i\u015fba\u015f\u0131nda kalmal\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Halk kurultaylar\u0131nda \u00fclke meseleleri konu\u015fulmal\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sava\u015f gerekti\u011finde savunma ama\u00e7l\u0131 yap\u0131lmal\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Thomas More, Sanayi Devrimi&#8217;nden \u00e7ok sonra uygulamaya koyulan kad\u0131n erkek e\u015fitli\u011fi, \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma saatlerinin s\u0131n\u0131rland\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131, temel e\u011fitimin genel, paras\u0131z ve zorunlu olmas\u0131, sa\u011fl\u0131k hizmetlerinin devlet\u00e7e yerine getirilmesi, ya\u015fl\u0131lar\u0131n ve d\u00fc\u015fk\u00fcnlerin devlet\u00e7e g\u00f6zetilmesi gibi g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerin \u00f6nc\u00fcs\u00fc say\u0131l\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Thomas More\u2019un \u201c\u00dctopya\u201d adl\u0131 eseri, roman sanat\u0131n\u0131n hen\u00fcz ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 o tarihlerde, bir anlat\u0131 metni olarak kurgulanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u00dctopya, g\u00fcney yar\u0131m k\u00fcrede bir adad\u0131r. Hik\u00e2ye, bu adada ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f bir gemicinin, ada halk\u0131n\u0131n kurdu\u011fu d\u00fczeninin m\u00fckemmelli\u011fini Avrupa\u2019ya tan\u0131tmas\u0131 bi\u00e7iminde s\u00fcrer.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Jean Rousseau\u2019ya (Jan Jak Russo) g\u00f6re her t\u00fcrl\u00fc k\u00f6t\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn kayna\u011f\u0131, m\u00fclkiyet fikrinin varl\u0131k kazanmas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00fclkiyetin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131 ile s\u0131n\u0131f kavgas\u0131 ba\u015f g\u00f6stermi\u015f, siyasal iktidar da bu s\u0131n\u0131f sava\u015f\u0131n\u0131n bir sonucu olarak bi\u00e7imlenmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201c\u0130nsanlar Aras\u0131ndaki E\u015fitsizli\u011fin Kayna\u011f\u0131\u201d adl\u0131 eserinde m\u00fclkiyet hakk\u0131n\u0131n ortadan kalkmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fini \u00f6ne s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Rousseau \u201cToplum S\u00f6zle\u015fmesi\u201d adl\u0131 eserinde toplum d\u00fczeninin s\u00f6zle\u015fmelere dayand\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 vurgulamakta ve devleti y\u00fcceltmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Toplum s\u00f6zle\u015fmesi ile olu\u015fan devlet, egemen g\u00fc\u00e7t\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Egemenlik b\u00f6l\u00fcnemez.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu nedenle de kuvvetler ayr\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ilkesi kabul edilemez.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Frans\u0131z \u0130htilali ile birlikte toplumda d\u00fczenin sa\u011flanmas\u0131 i\u00e7in devlet otoritesini savunmu\u015ftur. \u00c7o\u011funlu\u011fun iktidar\u0131ndan yanad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Immanuel Kant (\u0130manuel Kant), Rousseu\u2019nun Toplum S\u00f6zle\u015fmesi eserinden etkilenerek yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u201cS\u00fcrekli Bar\u0131\u015f Projesi\u201d adl\u0131 eserinde kamusal otoritenin temelini olu\u015fturmada akl\u0131 \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130nsanlar\u0131n temel e\u015fitli\u011fi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesinin ancak evrensel ak\u0131l \u00f6nermeleriyle yap\u0131laca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 savunmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kant\u2019a g\u00f6re do\u011fa, insanlar\u0131 ama\u00e7lar\u0131na do\u011fru g\u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fcrken evrenselle\u015ftirir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ahlak\u0131n evrenselli\u011fi b\u00fct\u00fcn bireylerin e\u015fitli\u011fini getirir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kant&#8217;a g\u00f6re yurtta\u015fl\u0131k, genel yasa kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda ba\u011fl\u0131l\u0131k stat\u00fcs\u00fc de\u011fildir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>E\u015fit karde\u015flik durumunda olan herkesin hakk\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu amaca uygun olan tek siyasal bi\u00e7im temsil\u00ee sistem ve g\u00fc\u00e7ler ayr\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 i\u015fleyen cumhuriyet\u00e7i bi\u00e7imdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130\u015f\u00e7i ve hizmetk\u00e2r s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131 yurtta\u015f olarak kabul etmez.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>O b\u00fct\u00fcn bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleriyle evrensel ahlak\u0131 \u00f6ne alan orta s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 savunur ve onlar\u0131 ger\u00e7ek yurtta\u015f olarak kabul eder.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Reform:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupa&#8217;da, Martin Luther \u00f6nderli\u011finde 16. y\u00fczy\u0131lda meydana gelen, din\u00ee alandaki de\u011fi\u015fimlerdir. Almanya\u2019da ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Yeniden d\u00fczenleme anlam\u0131na gelir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Reform\u2019un Nedenleri;<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ka\u011f\u0131t ve matbaan\u0131n geli\u015ftirilmesi,<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Katolik kilisesinde meydana gelen bozulmalar<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Aforoz (H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131kta din karde\u015fli\u011finden ve kiliseden \u00e7\u0131karmak), Enterdi (Bir \u00fclkeyi kral\u0131 ile birlikte dinden atmak) ve End\u00fcljans (Papa&#8217;n\u0131n satt\u0131\u011f\u0131 af belgesi) sorunlar\u0131,<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>R\u00f6nesans&#8217;\u0131n etkileri ve Skolastik d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncenin y\u0131k\u0131lmas\u0131<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130ncil\u2019in milli dillere \u00e7evrilmesi<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kilisenin zenginli\u011fine kar\u015f\u0131n halk\u0131n fakirli\u011fi<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Reformun Almanya&#8217;da Ba\u015flamas\u0131n\u0131n Nedenleri:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 daha ge\u00e7 kabul eden Almanlar\u0131n inan\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n k\u00f6t\u00fcye kullan\u0131lmas\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Alman halk\u0131n\u0131n daha fakir olmas\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Matbaan\u0131n Almanya\u2019da geli\u015ftirilmesi ve bunun \u0130ncil&#8217;in \u00e7o\u011falt\u0131lmas\u0131nda kullan\u0131lmas\u0131,<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130ncil&#8217;in ilk kez Almancaya \u00e7evrilmesi,<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Baz\u0131 derebeylerin \u015earlken&#8217;e kar\u015f\u0131 reformcu gruplar\u0131 desteklemesi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Reform S\u00fcreci:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Reform hareketleri Almanya\u2019da Katolik bir papaz olan Martin Luther taraf\u0131ndan ba\u015flat\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Luther, k\u0131sa s\u00fcrede Alman prensliklerinin ve halk\u0131n deste\u011fini elde etmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupa\u2019da olu\u015fan Katolik kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 bu yeni din\u00ee anlay\u0131\u015f Protestanl\u0131k mezhebine d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupa\u2019da ya\u015fanan geli\u015fmeler, Katolikler ile Protestanlar aras\u0131nda kanl\u0131 mezhep \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131n ya\u015fanmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>S\u00fcr\u00fcp giden toplumsal \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar 1555&#8217;te Augsburg Antla\u015fmas\u0131\u2019n\u0131n imzalanmas\u0131na neden olmu\u015ftur. Bu antla\u015fma ile, Protestan mezhebi resmen kabul edilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Reform hareketleri Fransa\u2019da Calven taraf\u0131ndan savunulmu\u015ftur. Nant Ferman\u0131 ile Kalvenizm Fransa\u2019da kabul edilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Reform hareketlerinin \u0130ngiltere\u2019deki savunucusu \u0130ngiltere Kral\u0131 8. Henri\u2019dir. Kral, Reform\u2019la ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan yeni d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerin halk aras\u0131nda yay\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flam\u0131\u015f, \u0130ngiliz kilisesini Papa\u2019n\u0131n ve Katolik Kilisesinin egemenli\u011finden \u00e7\u0131kartarak, kendi kontrol\u00fc alt\u0131na alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Osmanl\u0131 Devleti Reform hareketlerini yak\u0131ndan izlemi\u015f, Protestanlara destek de olmu\u015ftur. Osmanl\u0131lar\u0131n bu politikas\u0131nda; Avrupa Hristiyan birli\u011finin par\u00e7alanmak istenmesi \u00f6nemli rol oynam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Reform&#8217;un Sonu\u00e7lar\u0131:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Papan\u0131n Avrupa\u2019daki etkinli\u011fi azalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupa\u2019da yeni mezhepler ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Katolik Kilisesi geli\u015fmeler kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda kendini yenileme yoluna gitmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kiliseye ait olan mallar ve topraklar ele ge\u00e7irilmeye ba\u015flanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130lk kez laik e\u011fitim kurumlan a\u00e7\u0131lmaya ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupa\u2019da mezhep anla\u015fmazl\u0131klar\u0131ndan do\u011fan sava\u015flar ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mezhep \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 Osmanl\u0131 Devleti\u2019nin Avrupa fetihlerini kolayla\u015ft\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Otuz Y\u0131l Sava\u015flar\u0131 (1618 \u2013 1648):<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ayd\u0131nlanma \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 olarak nitelenen 17. y\u00fczy\u0131lda din eksenli sava\u015flar ya\u015fanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupa\u2019da kurmay\u0131 planlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 Hristiyan birli\u011fi i\u00e7in en b\u00fcy\u00fck engel olarak Alman prenslerini g\u00f6ren Kutsal Roma-Germen \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu, Protestan Alman prenslerine sald\u0131rm\u0131\u015f ve asker\u00ee m\u00fccadeleler ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Fransa kendisi de Katolik olmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen, Almanya&#8217;n\u0131n g\u00fc\u00e7lenmesini istemedi\u011fi i\u00e7in Protestanlar\u0131n yan\u0131nda sava\u015fa girmi\u015f ve sonu\u00e7ta 1648 &#8211; Westfalya Antla\u015fmas\u0131 imzalanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu antla\u015fma ile;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Buna g\u00f6re Protestanl\u0131k yeniden serbest b\u0131rak\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>&nbsp;Mezhep kavgalar\u0131na son verilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Roma Germen \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu da\u011f\u0131lma s\u00fcrecine girdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>SEK\u00dcLERLE\u015eME<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sek\u00fclerizm, din\u00ee olan\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 anlam\u0131na gelmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Protestan \u00fclkelerde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan bir d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sek\u00fclerizmde insan akl\u0131n\u0131n din\u00ee ba\u011flardan ayr\u0131lmas\u0131 ve dinin bir vicdan meselesi h\u00e2line getirilmesi istenmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bunun sonucu olarak din, kamu hayat\u0131ndan giderek ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, ki\u015fiye \u00f6zel h\u00e2le getirilerek manevi d\u00fcnyan\u0131n in\u015fas\u0131na kayd\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>B\u00f6ylece Bat\u0131\u2019da din sosyal \u00f6nemini de yitirmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>AVRUPA\u2019DA SOSYAL VE EKONOM\u0130K GEL\u0130\u015eMELER<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Orta\u00e7a\u011f Avrupas\u0131\u2019nda kral ile di\u011fer egemen bir g\u00fc\u00e7 olan prenslikler aras\u0131nda hiyerar\u015fik bir yap\u0131 bulunmaktayd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Papa ilahi liderken imparator ise d\u00fcnyevi bir liderdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Reform hareketleriyle birlikte kilise d\u0131\u015fland\u0131, feodal devletler g\u00fc\u00e7 kaybetti ve ulusal krall\u0131klar kuvvetlendi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Dinin devletler aras\u0131nda farkl\u0131 alg\u0131lanmas\u0131 sonucunda Avrupa\u2019da Otuz Y\u0131l Sava\u015flar\u0131 (1618-1648) ya\u015fand\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu sava\u015flar sonras\u0131 Westphalia (Vestfalya) Bar\u0131\u015f Antla\u015fmas\u0131 imzaland\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Antla\u015fma ile Avrupa devletlerinin stat\u00fcleri de\u011fi\u015fmeye, devletler aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fkiler sek\u00fclerle\u015fmeye ba\u015flad\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kilisenin sahip oldu\u011fu b\u00fct\u00fcn g\u00fc\u00e7lere s\u0131n\u0131rland\u0131rma getirildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Almanya\u2019da Katoliklik, Protestanl\u0131k ve Kalvenizm ge\u00e7erli mezhepler h\u00e2line geldi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Westphalia Bar\u0131\u015f\u0131, Avrupa\u2019y\u0131 din\u00ee ve siyasi anlamda denge sistemine dayand\u0131rmak amac\u0131yla yap\u0131lan ilk konferanst\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bundan b\u00f6yle imparatorluklar yerini ulusal krall\u0131klara ve ulus devletlere b\u0131rak\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>R\u00f6nesans ve reformlarla ba\u015flayan geli\u015fmeler, Avrupa\u2019da Ayd\u0131nlanma \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ba\u015flatt\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Newton, Kopernik, Galileo, Descartes (Dekart), Jean Jack Rousseu, Immanuel Kant, Voltaire (Volter) ve Montesquieu (Monteskiy\u00f6) Ayd\u0131nlanma \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n ileri gelen temsilcileridir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>H\u00dcMAN\u0130ZM<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>H\u00fcmanizm, insan\u0131 de\u011fer kabul eden, onu her \u015feyin \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fct\u00fc olarak tan\u0131mlayan, insan\u0131n do\u011fas\u0131n\u0131, yeteneklerini, s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131 veya ilgilerini konu edinen bir felsefi ak\u0131md\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>H\u00fcmanizm, edebiyat, bilim, sanat alanlar\u0131nda ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>R\u00f6nesans&#8217;\u0131n do\u011fmas\u0131nda h\u00fcmanist d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncenin etkisi b\u00fcy\u00fck olmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>H\u00fcmanizm d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesi heykel ve mimari alan\u0131nda da kendini g\u00f6stermi\u015fti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>H\u00fcmanizmin \u00f6nemli temsilcileri aras\u0131nda: Dante, Petrarca (Petrark), Montaigne (Monteyn), Erasmus ve Cervantes (Servantes) say\u0131lmaktayd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>MERKANT\u0130L\u0130ZM VE BURJUVA SINIFI<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Merkantilizm, bir \u00fclkenin zenginli\u011fini, sahip oldu\u011fu alt\u0131n ve g\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f gibi de\u011ferlere ba\u011flayan ekonomik doktrindir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Di\u011fer bir ifadeyle &#8220;merkantilizm, bir milletin ekonomik g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc ve zenginli\u011fini en \u00fcst d\u00fczeye \u00e7\u0131karmak amac\u0131n\u0131 g\u00fcden ekonomi modelidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XVI ve XVII. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Avrupa \u00fclkelerinin ticaret politikalar\u0131n\u0131n temelini merkantilizm olu\u015fturmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Merkantilist anlay\u0131\u015f, Co\u011frafi Ke\u015fifler sonras\u0131nda Avrupa&#8217;da ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupal\u0131lar\u0131n yeni ticaret yollar\u0131 bulmalar\u0131nda ve s\u00f6m\u00fcrgecilik yar\u0131\u015f\u0131na girmelerinde merkantilist anlay\u0131\u015f \u00f6n plandad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Co\u011frafi Ke\u015fifler ile ticarette gittik\u00e7e zenginle\u015fen burjuva s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 do\u011fdu. Y\u00f6netimde ve ticarette s\u00f6z sahibi oldular.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>MERKANT\u0130L\u0130ZM\u2019\u0130N ETK\u0130LER\u0130<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XVII. Y\u00fczy\u0131ldan itibaren \u015fehirlerde n\u00fcfus art\u0131\u015f oranlar\u0131n\u0131 y\u00fckseldi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu durum Sanayi \u0130nk\u0131lab\u0131&#8217;n\u0131n kayna\u011f\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturdu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Di\u011fer yandan artan n\u00fcfusun ihtiya\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131lamak i\u00e7in gerekli olan tar\u0131m, hayvanc\u0131l\u0131k vb. kaynak yetersizli\u011fi k\u00f6yl\u00fc isyanlar\u0131na neden oldu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bunlardan dolay\u0131 merkantilist ekonomi, k\u0131r n\u00fcfusunun kentlere ta\u015f\u0131nmas\u0131nda etkili oldu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XVIII. y\u00fczy\u0131lda \u0130ngiltere ve Hollanda merkezli ba\u015flayan iyile\u015fmeler ve teknolojik geli\u015fmeler sayesinde tar\u0131mda insan g\u00fcc\u00fcne olan ihtiya\u00e7 azald\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu geli\u015fme sonucunda k\u0131rsalda ya\u015fayan insanlar\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck bir k\u0131sm\u0131 i\u015fsiz kal\u0131nca kentlere g\u00f6\u00e7 etmek zorunda kald\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>MODERN DEVLETLER HUKUKUNUN ORTAYA \u00c7IKI\u015eI<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Martin Luther\u2019in \u00f6nc\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 reform hareketleri Mezhep Sava\u015flar\u0131 olarak da an\u0131lan Otuz Y\u0131l Sava\u015flar\u0131\u2019n\u0131n ba\u015flamas\u0131na neden oldu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Westphalia (Vestfalya) Bar\u0131\u015f\u0131 ile bu sava\u015flar son buldu ve \u201ch\u00e2kimiyet\u201d kavram\u0131 bu s\u00fcre\u00e7le yeniden tart\u0131\u015fmaya a\u00e7\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Roma-Vatikan merkezli birle\u015fik Avrupa yerini ulusal devlet merkezli, par\u00e7alanm\u0131\u015f bir Avrupa\u2019ya b\u0131rakt\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>OTUZ YIL SAVA\u015eLARI\u2019NIN (1618-1648) NEDENLER\u0130<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>1555 y\u0131l\u0131nda yap\u0131lan Ogsburg Antla\u015fmas\u0131 ile Kutsal Roma Germen imparatoru ve papal\u0131k, Protestanlar\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 kabul etmek zorunda kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avusturya ve \u0130spanya krallar\u0131 papa ile i\u015fbirli\u011fi yaparak Protestanlara ve Protestanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 benimsemi\u015f prenslere bask\u0131 kurmaya ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ogsburg Bar\u0131\u015f antla\u015fmas\u0131 ile yasaklanan kilise mallar\u0131n\u0131n kamula\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131na Protestan prensler taraf\u0131ndan devam edildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Din\u00ee sebeplerle ba\u015flayan sava\u015flarda, Habsburg ve Bourbon (B\u00f6rb\u0131n)&nbsp; -Fransa- hanedanlar\u0131n\u0131n siyas\u00ee m\u00fccadelesinin de rol\u00fc vard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>OTUZ YIL SAVA\u015eLARI\u2019NIN TARAFLARI<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Protestan Birli\u011fi: Fransa, Danimarka, Bohemya, \u0130sve\u00e7, Norve\u00e7, Hollanda, \u0130ngiltere, Protestan Alman Prenslikleri<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Katolik Birli\u011fi: Kutsal Roma Germen \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu, \u0130spanya, Avusturya, Bavyera, Katolik Alman Prenslikler<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u00d6nceleri Katolik krallar\u0131n \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fck kurdu\u011fu sava\u015f\u0131 \u0130sve\u00e7 ve Fransa&#8217;n\u0131n sava\u015fa dahil olmas\u0131 ve&nbsp; Portekiz\u2019in \u0130spanya\u2019dan ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ilan etmesiyle Protestanlar kazand\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Taraflar aras\u0131nda 1648 y\u0131l\u0131nda Westphalia (Vestfalya) Antla\u015fmas\u0131 imzalanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>1648 WESTPHAL\u0130A BARI\u015eI<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Westphalia Bar\u0131\u015f\u0131 ile Avrupa halk\u0131na mezhep se\u00e7me \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc tan\u0131nd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hollanda, \u0130svi\u00e7re ve Portekiz gibi devletlerin ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131 kabul g\u00f6rd\u00fc.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Modern devletler hukukunun temeli at\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Habsburg Hanedan\u0131\u2019n\u0131n itibar\u0131 zedelendi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Almanya\u2019da yerel hanedanlar \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131lar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Brandenburg (Birend\u0131nb\u00f6rg) Prensli\u011fi giderek g\u00fc\u00e7lendi ve bir bak\u0131ma Prusya \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu\u2019nun yani Almanya\u2019n\u0131n temelleri Westphalia\u2019da at\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Almanya y\u00fczlerce k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck prensli\u011fe b\u00f6l\u00fcnd\u00fc.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>1648 WESTPHAL\u0130A BARI\u015eI\u2019NIN DE\u011eERLEND\u0130RMES\u0130<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Almanya 1871\u2019e kadar siyasal birli\u011fini tamamlayarak Orta Avrupa\u2019da bask\u0131n g\u00fc\u00e7 olma \u015fans\u0131n\u0131 yitirdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XIX. y\u00fczy\u0131la kadar k\u0131ta Avrupas\u0131\u2019ndaki en g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc devlet ise Fransa oldu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Alman \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu gibi papal\u0131k da Westphalia\u2019da darbe yedi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201cDin \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc mefhumu (kavram\u0131) Avrupa\u2019da kesinlik kazand\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Devletler daha sek\u00fcler (d\u00fcnyevi) bir hale geldi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Devletler kendi topraklar\u0131nda \u201cmutlak egemen\u201d bir konuma y\u00fckseldi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupal\u0131 krallar kiliselerini \u201cmill\u00ee\u201d h\u00e2le getirdiler. Dini, devletin tekeline ald\u0131lar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>MODERN DEVLETLER HUKUKUNDA WESTPHAL\u0130A MODEL\u0130<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Westphalia modeline g\u00f6re devletler, devletler aras\u0131 hukukun e\u015fit \u00f6zneleri oldular.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Devletler aras\u0131 hukuk devletlerin kendi arzular\u0131yla taraf olduklar\u0131 antla\u015fmalarla belirlenecektir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Devlet kendi tebaas\u0131 ve kendi topraklar\u0131 \u00fczerinde mutlak yetkiye sahip oldu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu antla\u015fma, Modern Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n ve mill\u00ee devletlerin do\u011fu\u015funda da \u00f6nemli bir yere sahiptir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Westphalia, Napolyon sonras\u0131nda Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n yap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n belirlendi\u011fi 1815 Viyana Antla\u015fmas\u0131\u2019na kadar Avrupa kamu hukukunun temeli oldu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>AVRUPA\u2019DA B\u0130L\u0130MSEL GEL\u0130\u015eMELER<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Yeni \u00c7a\u011f\u2019da kilise \u00f6\u011fretilerine kar\u015f\u0131 Rasyonalizm ak\u0131m\u0131 ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. Rasyonalizm, (ak\u0131lc\u0131l\u0131k) ger\u00e7eklerle ilgisi kopmu\u015f birtak\u0131m dogmatik d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce kal\u0131plar\u0131n\u0131n i\u00e7ine hapsolmadan, sorunlara akla, mant\u0131\u011fa ve ger\u00e7e\u011fe uygun \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmler aramak demektir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Rasyonel d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncenin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 felsefelerden birisi de pozitivizmdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Pozitivizm, ayd\u0131nlanman\u0131n temel d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesi olan bireysel akl\u0131n, do\u011fan\u0131n kontrol\u00fcn\u00fcn, modernitenin, egemenlik ve hukukun temellerini olu\u015fturmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Copernicus 1473-1543<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Antik ve Orta \u00c7a\u011f ilminin evrenle ilgili yakla\u015f\u0131mlar\u0131n\u0131n yanl\u0131\u015f oldu\u011funu iddia eden Polonyal\u0131 din adam\u0131, matematik\u00e7i ve astronom Kopernik, D\u00fcnya\u2019n\u0131n G\u00fcne\u015f\u2019in etraf\u0131nda d\u00f6nd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc tezinin \u00f6nc\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc yapm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>H\u00fcmanist y\u00f6ntemin ilim \u00f6\u011frenmede \u00f6nemini kabul eden Kopernik, astronomi biliminde matemati\u011fin eksikli\u011fini anlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Astronomi alan\u0131nda \u00f6nc\u00fc olan Kopernik, kendinden sonra gelen Kepler ve Galileo i\u00e7in esin kayna\u011f\u0131 olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kopernik, evrenin G\u00fcne\u015f merkezli oldu\u011funu ve D\u00fcnya\u2019n\u0131n d\u00f6nd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc bilimsel temellere oturtmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>D\u00fcnya\u2019n\u0131n ve b\u00fct\u00fcn gezegenlerin kendi ve G\u00fcne\u015f etraf\u0131nda d\u00f6nd\u00fckleri fikrini ileri s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Galile 1564- 1642<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130talyan as\u0131ll\u0131 g\u00f6k bilimcidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kendi geli\u015ftirdi\u011fi teleskopla gezegenleri ve y\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131 inceledi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Gezegenlerin G\u00fcne\u015f etraf\u0131nda hareket etti\u011fini ve D\u00fcnya\u2019n\u0131n yuvarlak oldu\u011funu savundu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerinden dolay\u0131 engizisyonda yarg\u0131land\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mahkeme bask\u0131s\u0131 nedeniyle iddialar\u0131ndan vazge\u00e7ti\u011fini s\u00f6yledi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Isaac Newton 1642-1727<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Orta \u00c7a\u011f boyunca Katolik Kilisesi D\u00fcnya&#8217;n\u0131n evrenin merkezi oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesini benimsemi\u015fti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bilim Devrimi ile birlikte G\u00fcne\u015f merkezli bir evren sisteminin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 kabul edildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Isaac Newton&#8217;\u0131n (Ayzek Nivt\u0131n) (1643- 1727) optik, matematik ve fizik alanlar\u0131ndaki \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 ise Bilim Devrimi&#8217;nin en \u00fcst noktas\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Newton, geli\u015fmi\u015f bir teleskop icat etti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Newton, \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f anlamda bilimi kuran ve bilimsel d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn en geli\u015fmi\u015f \u00f6rne\u011fini ortaya koyan bilim insan\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Evrensel \u00e7ekim yasas\u0131n\u0131 bulman\u0131n \u00f6tesinde bilim ve felsefe aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fkiyi de bug\u00fcn\u00fcn bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131yla belirledi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Bilim \u0130nsanlar\u0131 ve \u0130catlar\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Copernicus: G\u00fcne\u015f merkezli evren modeli<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Galileo: Teleskop, termometre, e\u011fik d\u00fczlem deneyi<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Newton: Evrensel k\u00fctle\u00e7ekimi yasas\u0131, kalk\u00fcl\u00fcs, optik teorisi<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kepler: Gezegenlerin eliptik y\u00f6r\u00fcngeleri ve hareket yasalar\u0131<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Torricelli: Barometre, hidrostatik bas\u0131n\u00e7 yasas\u0131<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Pascal: Pascal \u00fc\u00e7geni, Pascal yasas\u0131, bas\u0131n\u00e7 \u00f6l\u00e7er<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>OSMANLI DEVLET\u0130\u2019NDE ASKER\u0130 VE EKONOM\u0130K SARSINTILAR<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XVI. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan itibaren Co\u011frafi ke\u015fiflerin ve Avrupa&#8217;daki merkantilizmin etkisiyle \u00f6nemli miktarda de\u011ferli madenlerin birikimi yap\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bol miktarda g\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f paran\u0131n kullan\u0131m\u0131, g\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn bollu\u011fu fiyatlar\u0131n y\u00fckselmesine ve gelirin d\u00fc\u015fmesine neden oldu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu geli\u015fmeler Osmanl\u0131 ekonomisinde paraya de\u011fer kaybettirdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu durum enflasyonun ya\u015fanmas\u0131na neden oldu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130lk etkili enflasyon 1593&#8217;te oldu ve bir ak\u00e7edeki g\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f miktar\u0131 yar\u0131 yar\u0131ya indirildi ama maa\u015flar, ayn\u0131 ak\u00e7e miktar\u0131yla \u00f6dendi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Devletten maa\u015f alanlar, eskisine oranla gelirlerinin yar\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 kaybetmi\u015f oldular.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu d\u00f6nemde kap\u0131kulu askerlerinin say\u0131s\u0131 birka\u00e7 kat artt\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131 ve ate\u015fli silahlarla donat\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Askerlere ul\u00fbfe ve bah\u015fi\u015flerin \u00f6denmesi ekonomiye b\u00fcy\u00fck bir y\u00fck getirdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ticaret yollar\u0131n\u0131n de\u011fi\u015fmesi nedeniyle Osmanl\u0131 \u015fehirleri ve ekonomisi b\u00fcy\u00fck zarar g\u00f6rd\u00fc.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu gerilemeyi artt\u0131ran bir di\u011fer neden Anadolu&#8217;da ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan Cel\u00e2li \u0130syanlar\u0131&#8217;d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Osmanl\u0131 Devleti para politikas\u0131na yeniden \u00e7ekid\u00fczen vermek i\u00e7in baz\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar yapt\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu do\u011frultuda darphanede \u00e7e\u015fitli miktarda ve oranlarda sikkeler (para) bast\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>&nbsp;Saraya ait alt\u0131n ve g\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f i\u00e7eren de\u011ferli e\u015fyalar da darphanede eritilerek paraya \u00e7evrildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Maden ocaklar\u0131 yeniden faaliyete ge\u00e7irilip i\u015fletmeye a\u00e7\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>T\u00fcm bu tedbirlere ra\u011fmen ordunun asker\u00ee harcamalar\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131lanamad\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XVIII. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ilk yar\u0131s\u0131nda Devlet, sava\u015f\u0131n yol a\u00e7t\u0131\u011f\u0131 k\u0131tl\u0131k ve enflasyonu engellemek i\u00e7in geleneksel fiyat d\u00fczenlemesi olarak bilinen narh (resmi makamlar\u0131n belirledi\u011fi fiyat) sistemine uygun olarak fiyatlar\u0131n kontrol\u00fcn\u00fc sa\u011flad\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>KAP\u0130T\u00dcLASYONLARIN S\u00dcREKL\u0130 HALE GET\u0130R\u0130LMES\u0130 VE SONU\u00c7LARI<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ger\u00e7ek anlamda ilk kapit\u00fclasyon II. Selim d\u00f6neminde 1569\u2019da Fransa\u2019ya verildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>1580\u2019de \u0130ngiltere\u2019ye ve 1612\u2019de de Hollanda\u2019ya Kapit\u00fclasyonlar verildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>1740 y\u0131l\u0131nda Fransa\u2019ya verilen kapit\u00fclasyonlar Sultan I. Mahmut taraf\u0131ndan s\u00fcrekli h\u00e2le getirdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130ngiltere\u2019ye verilen ayr\u0131cal\u0131klar 1838 Balta Liman\u0131 Antla\u015fmas\u0131 ile en geni\u015f halini ald\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupal\u0131 devletlere verilen kapit\u00fclasyonlar merkantilizm politikas\u0131n\u0131n<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>&nbsp;Osmanl\u0131&#8217;da uygulanmas\u0131n\u0131 kolayla\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupal\u0131lar\u0131n mallar\u0131 zamanla Osmanl\u0131 pazarlar\u0131n\u0131 doldurmaya ba\u015flad\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Esnaf s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n i\u015f yapamaz h\u00e2le gelmesi, sosyo-ekonomik yap\u0131n\u0131n bozulmas\u0131na neden oldu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>OSMANLI ASKER\u0130 YAPISINA Y\u00d6NEL\u0130K D\u00dcZENLEMELER<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XV. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ikinci yar\u0131s\u0131ndan itibaren ate\u015fli silahlar\u0131n etkin bir \u015fekilde kullan\u0131lmaya ba\u015flanmas\u0131 Avrupa&#8217;da Asker\u00ee Devrim&#8217;in ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131 oldu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ate\u015fli silahlar\u0131n icad\u0131yla k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck prenslikler ve \u015fehir devletlerinin en b\u00fcy\u00fck dayana\u011f\u0131 olan Orta \u00c7a\u011f kale surlar\u0131 a\u015f\u0131labilir h\u00e2le geldi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu d\u00f6nemde a\u011f\u0131r atl\u0131 birliklerden vazge\u00e7ildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bunun yerine say\u0131ca fazla, daha ekonomik olan hafif silahl\u0131 piyadeler \u00f6n plana \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupa\u2019daki geli\u015fmelere ayak uyduramayan Osmanl\u0131 devleti askeri \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc kaybetmeye ba\u015flad\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Yeni\u00e7eri oca\u011f\u0131nda meydana gelen bozulmalar, t\u0131mar sisteminin bozulmas\u0131, Avrupa\u2019da ordusundaki geli\u015fmeler Osmanl\u0131 Devleti\u2019nin zay\u0131flamas\u0131nda etkili oldu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>T\u0131mar topraklar\u0131n\u0131n n\u00fcfuzlu \u015fah\u0131slar taraf\u0131ndan, kendi \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131 do\u011frultusunda kullan\u0131lmas\u0131 t\u0131mar\u0131n bozulmas\u0131na neden olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ayr\u0131ca dirliklerin, asker\u00ee hizmetle de\u011fil, para ile sat\u0131n al\u0131nabilen birer ge\u00e7im kap\u0131s\u0131 h\u00e2line gelmesi de t\u0131mar\u0131n bozulmas\u0131n\u0131 h\u0131zland\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu durum Osmanl\u0131 Devleti\u2019nde asker\u00ee ve mali gerilemeye yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XVII. y\u00fczy\u0131lda t\u0131mar sisteminin bozulmaya ba\u015flamas\u0131yla asker say\u0131s\u0131nda azalmalar ya\u015fand\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Osmanl\u0131 ordusunda t\u00fcfek kullanan piyade ihtiyac\u0131n\u0131n art\u0131\u015f\u0131yla yeni\u00e7eri say\u0131s\u0131 artt\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kap\u0131 kullar\u0131 eskiden beri maa\u015f olarak ul\u00fbfe al\u0131yorlard\u0131. T\u0131marl\u0131 sipahilerin yerini alan sekban ve sar\u0131calar, kap\u0131 kullar\u0131 gibi ul\u00fbfe ile hizmet ediyorlard\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kap\u0131 kullar\u0131n\u0131n maa\u015flar\u0131 devlet hazinesinden \u00f6denirken bu yeni asker\u00ee te\u015fkilat\u0131n maa\u015flar\u0131 ise vilayet beyleri taraf\u0131ndan \u00f6denmeye ba\u015fland\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XVII. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ilk yar\u0131s\u0131nda Cel\u00e2li \u0130syanlar\u0131 nedeniyle Anadolu\u2019da a\u00e7\u0131\u011fa \u00e7\u0131kan g\u00fcvenlik sorunlar\u0131n\u0131n a\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131 ve isyanlar\u0131n bast\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in sekban, sar\u0131ca ad\u0131yla an\u0131lan levent birlikleri olu\u015fturuldu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>T\u0131marl\u0131 sipahi sisteminin bozulmas\u0131 ile devlet yeni asker\u00ee organizasyonlar kurmaya ba\u015flad\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu asker\u00ee de\u011fi\u015fimi zorunlu k\u0131lan nedenlerden bir di\u011feri de Avrupa ordular\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda ya\u015fanan yenilgilerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sekban ve sar\u0131ca askerleri Anadolu halk\u0131ndan al\u0131nmakta olup daha \u00f6nceleri levent ad\u0131n\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131yan ki\u015filerden olu\u015fuyordu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XVII. Y\u00fczy\u0131l Cel\u00e2li \u0130syanlar\u0131&#8217;n\u0131n bast\u0131r\u0131l\u0131p i\u00e7 g\u00fcvenli\u011fin sa\u011flanmas\u0131nda sekban ve sar\u0131calar etkili oldular.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>\u0130LT\u0130ZAM S\u0130STEM\u0130<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sava\u015f teknolojisindeki geli\u015fim, ate\u015fli silahlarla donat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ve devaml\u0131 maa\u015f alan merkez\u00ee piyade ordular\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6nemini artt\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu geli\u015fmeler Osmanl\u0131 maliyesine \u00f6nemli bir y\u00fck getirmi\u015f, devlet gelirlerinin b\u00fcy\u00fck bir k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131n nakit \u00fczerinden hazinede toplanmas\u0131 gereklili\u011fini do\u011furmu\u015ftur. Bu nedenle t\u0131mar sisteminin \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fclmesi de ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>T\u0131mar sistemi yerine iltizam sistemi uygulanmaya ba\u015fland\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130ltizam sisteminde devlet, bir b\u00f6lgenin vergi toplama hakk\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131k artt\u0131rma usul\u00fcyle satard\u0131. Devlet iltizam bedelinin bir k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131 pe\u015fin olarak talep ederdi. Pe\u015fin para yat\u0131rarak iltizam\u0131 alan ki\u015filere m\u00fcltezim, vergi toplama hakk\u0131n\u0131 ald\u0131klar\u0131 topraklara da mukataa denirdi. M\u00fcltezimler ba\u015fta asker\u00ee s\u0131n\u0131ftan gelenlerden olu\u015furken bunlar\u0131n yerini zamanla zengin t\u00fcccarlar ve tefeciler almaya ba\u015flad\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ekonomide dengenin sa\u011flanmas\u0131 i\u00e7in M\u00fcsadere (el koyma), yeni vergilerin al\u0131nmas\u0131 ve mevcut vergi oranlar\u0131n\u0131n art\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131, para ta\u011f\u015fi\u015fi (paran\u0131n i\u00e7erisine ba\u015fka ucuz madenler katma) gibi uygulamalara gidildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>OSMANLI ASKER\u0130 YAPISINA Y\u00d6NEL\u0130K D\u00dcZENLEMELER<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XVIII. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda nakit para s\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131s\u0131 iyice artt\u0131 ve b\u00fct\u00e7e i\u00e7in yeni kaynaklar arama \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 ba\u015flad\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu ama\u00e7la devlet giderleri aras\u0131nda en b\u00fcy\u00fck kalemi olu\u015fturan merkez\u00ee ordu ve b\u00fcrokrasiye mensup bir k\u0131s\u0131m b\u00fcrokrat, maa\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 devlete b\u0131rakt\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131nda bu b\u00fcrokratlara kendilerine tahsis edilen topraklar\u0131n y\u0131ll\u0131k vergileri maa\u015f olarak verildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bununla beraber topraklar\u0131n himayesi de m\u00fcltezimlere verildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu sayede devlet, herhangi bir gelir kayb\u0131na u\u011framadan bir k\u0131s\u0131m maa\u015f \u00f6demelerinden kurtuldu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Osmanl\u0131 Devleti iltizam sisteminin haricinde XVII. y\u00fczy\u0131l sonunda malik\u00e2ne sistemini uygulamaya ba\u015flad\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu sistem Osmanl\u0131 Devleti maliyesini t\u00fcm XVIII. y\u00fczy\u0131l boyunca etkileyen en \u00f6nemli geli\u015fmeydi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>MAL\u0130K\u00c2NE S\u0130STEM\u0130<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>1695 y\u0131l\u0131nda &#8220;malik\u00e2ne usul\u00fc&#8221; olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan bu sistemin amac\u0131 s\u00fcrekli de\u011fi\u015fen m\u00fcltezimlerin fazla k\u00e2r sa\u011flama amac\u0131yla tahrip ettikleri vergi kaynaklar\u0131n\u0131 yeniden canland\u0131rarak s\u00fcrekli h\u00e2le getirmek ve de\u011fi\u015fmez bir m\u00fcltezime b\u0131rakmakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mukataa topraklar\u0131 h\u0131zla malik\u00e2ne mukataas\u0131na \u00e7evrildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sistem sayesinde ba\u015flarda Osmanl\u0131 hazinesine \u00f6nemli miktarda nakit para ak\u0131\u015f\u0131 sa\u011fland\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Uzun d\u00f6nemde ise bu sistem beraberinde yeni sorunlar\u0131 getirdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Malik\u00e2ne sahiplerinin \u00f6nemli bir k\u0131sm\u0131 \u0130stanbul&#8217;da kalmaya ve mukataalar\u0131 yasa d\u0131\u015f\u0131 yollarla iltizama vermeye ba\u015flad\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Malik\u00e2neciler ayr\u0131ca vergi kaynaklar\u0131na devletin istedi\u011fi \u00f6zeni g\u00f6stermeme e\u011filimine girdiler.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Malik\u00e2ne sistemi Sultan Abd\u00fclmecid taraf\u0131ndan 1840&#8217;ta resmen kald\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>\u0130\u00c7 \u00c7ALKANTILAR VE \u0130SYANLAR<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cel\u00e2li \u0130syanlar\u0131<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Yeni\u00e7eri \u0130syanlar\u0131 (\u0130stanbul \u0130syanlar\u0131)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Suhte \u0130syanlar\u0131<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>CEL\u00c2L\u0130 \u0130SYANLARI<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cel\u00e2li \u0130syanlar\u0131, Yavuz Sultan Selim D\u00f6nemi&#8217;nde ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu isyanlar\u0131n, Cel\u00e2li \u0130syanlar\u0131 olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 Tokat ve \u00e7evresinde isyan eden Bozoklu Cel\u00e2l&#8217;den gelmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XVII. y\u00fczy\u0131la kadar devam eden Cel\u00e2li \u0130syanlar\u0131 k\u0131sa zamanda geni\u015f bir taraftar kitlesine ula\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu d\u00f6nemde \u00e7\u0131kan isyanlar\u0131n geneline Cel\u00e2li \u0130syanlar\u0131 ad\u0131 verilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cel\u00e2li \u0130syanlar\u0131 i\u00e7inde devleti en \u00e7ok u\u011fra\u015ft\u0131ran isyanlar Karayaz\u0131c\u0131, Deli Hasan, Tavil Ahmet, Canbolato\u011flu, Kalendero\u011flu, K\u00f6r Mahmut, Kat\u0131rc\u0131o\u011flu ve G\u00fcrc\u00fc Nebi isyanlar\u0131d\u0131r<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>CEL\u00c2L\u0130 \u0130SYANLARININ NEDENLER\u0130<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XVII. y\u00fczy\u0131lda uzun s\u00fcren Osmanl\u0131-Avusturya<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>ve Osmanl\u0131- \u0130ran sava\u015flar\u0131 gelirleri azaltt\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Osmanl\u0131 Devleti&#8217;nin ekonomisi zay\u0131flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>T\u0131mar sisteminin bozulmas\u0131,<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>vergilerin y\u00fckseltilmesi,<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>iltizam sistemiyle istenilen sonuca ula\u015f\u0131lamamas\u0131,<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>eski askerlerin e\u015fkiyal\u0131k faaliyetlerine y\u00f6nelmesi&nbsp; gibi nedenler bu isyanlar\u0131n ba\u015fl\u0131ca etkenleridir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>CEL\u00c2L\u0130 \u0130SYANLARININ SONU\u00c7LARI<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130syanlar\u0131n bast\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131nda \u015fiddet ve bask\u0131 uyguland\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in sa\u011flanan huzur uzun \u00f6m\u00fcrl\u00fc olmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Anadolu&#8217;da bir\u00e7ok insan hayat\u0131n\u0131 kaybetmi\u015f, k\u00f6yler bo\u015falm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Halk\u0131n can ve mal g\u00fcvenli\u011fi isyanlar boyunca tehlike alt\u0131na girmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130syanlardan dolay\u0131 tar\u0131msal ve hayvansal \u00fcretim d\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015f, i\u015fsizlik artm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>K\u00f6ylerden \u015fehirlere yap\u0131lan g\u00f6\u00e7ler sebebiyle k\u0131rsal n\u00fcfus azalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. G\u00f6\u00e7, \u015fehir hayat\u0131nda yeni sorunlar\u0131 do\u011furmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ekonomik a\u00e7\u0131dan ise vergilerin d\u00fczenli toplanamay\u0131\u015f\u0131 Osmanl\u0131 ekonomisini zay\u0131flatm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>YEN\u0130\u00c7ER\u0130 \u0130SYANLARI (\u0130STANBUL \u0130SYANLARI)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Askerlik d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda ticaret ve esnafl\u0131k gibi i\u015flere y\u00f6nelmeleri de bu d\u00f6nemde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Yeni\u00e7eriler, XVII. y\u00fczy\u0131l boyunca saraydaki \u00e7e\u015fitli gruplar aras\u0131ndaki iktidar m\u00fccadelesine alet oldular.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu isyanlar XVII. Y\u00fczy\u0131ldan itibaren Yeni\u00e7eri Oca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 devletin temel dayana\u011f\u0131 olmaktan \u00e7\u0131karm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>&#8220;Ocak devlet i\u00e7indir.&#8221; anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n yerini &#8220;Devlet ocak i\u00e7indir.&#8221; anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XVII. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan itibaren dev\u015firme sisteminin terk edilmesi Yeni\u00e7eri Oca\u011f\u0131n\u0131n saraya kar\u015f\u0131 uleman\u0131n yan\u0131nda yer almas\u0131na ve yenilikleri reddeden bir yap\u0131 h\u00e2line d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fmesine neden olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bunlardan Gen\u00e7 Osman, yeni\u00e7erilerin Lehistan seferindeki gayretsizli\u011fi \u00fczerine Yeni\u00e7eri Oca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 kald\u0131rmay\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fc.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu fikirlerinin duyulmas\u0131 \u00fczerine yeni\u00e7eriler isyan etti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu isyan Gen\u00e7 Osman&#8217;\u0131n \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcyle sonu\u00e7land\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>IV. Mehmet d\u00f6neminde yeni\u00e7eriler 30 kadar devlet adam\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7\u0131nar a\u011fac\u0131na ast\u0131lar. (Vakai Vakvakiyye) \u00c7\u0131nar Vakas\u0131<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>SUHTE \u0130SYANLARI<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Memleketin siyasi, iktisadi ve i\u00e7timai durumunun bozulmas\u0131, medreselilerin e\u011fitim d\u0131\u015f\u0131 faaliyetlerde bulunmas\u0131na neden olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu durum medrese e\u011fitimini ve \u00f6\u011fretimini aksatm\u0131\u015f ve geriletmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bundan dolay\u0131 hem iyi hoca yeti\u015fmemi\u015f hem de iyi \u00e2lim olman\u0131n arzusunu ta\u015f\u0131yan talebe say\u0131s\u0131 azalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Talebeler \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmadan, bilmeden, kolay\u0131ndan icazet alm\u0131\u015f; hak etmeden mevki ve vazife alma pe\u015finde ko\u015fmu\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Medreseli \u0130syanlar\u0131 olarak da an\u0131lan Suhte \u0130syanlar\u0131, XVI. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Anadolu ve Rumeli&#8217;de sosyal gerginli\u011fin bulundu\u011fu bir d\u00f6nemde cereyan etmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Medreseli talebeler isyana kat\u0131lan di\u011fer ki\u015filer (ba\u015f\u0131bozuk leventler ve \u00e7iftbozanlar) taraf\u0131ndan k\u0131\u015fk\u0131rt\u0131l\u0131p tahrik edilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Suhte \u0130syanlar\u0131 Kanuni Sultan S\u00fcleyman&#8217;\u0131n son d\u00f6nemlerinde e\u015fk\u0131yal\u0131k hareketlerine d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Suhteler, II. Selim ve III. Murat d\u00f6nemlerinde Cel\u00e2lilerle birlikte hareket etmi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XVII. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Sadrazam Kuyucu Murat Pa\u015fa&#8217;n\u0131n m\u00fcdahalesi sayesinde Suhte \u0130syanlar\u0131 etkisini yitirmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>EKBER VE ER\u015eED S\u0130STEM\u0130<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Osmanl\u0131 Devleti\u2019nde \u015fehzadeler, y\u00f6netimde tecr\u00fcbe kazanmas\u0131 amac\u0131yla yeti\u015ftirilmek i\u00e7in sancaklara g\u00f6nderilirdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>I. Ahmet D\u00f6nemi&#8217;nde (1603-1617) Ekber ve Er\u015fed Sistemiyle \u015fehzadelerin sanca\u011fa \u00e7\u0131kma usul\u00fc sona ermi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>B\u00f6ylece \u015fehzadelerin tamamen saray i\u00e7inde yeti\u015fti\u011fi kafes usul\u00fcne ge\u00e7ilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Veraset sisteminde yap\u0131lan bu de\u011fi\u015fiklikle hanedan\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fck (ekber) ve en olgun (er\u015fed) \u00fcyesi padi\u015fah olacakt\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu uygulamayla \u015fehzadeler aras\u0131nda taht kavgalar\u0131 \u00f6nlenmi\u015fti ancak \u015fehzadeler \u00fclke y\u00f6netiminde bilgi ve tecr\u00fcbe kazanmam\u0131\u015flard\u0131. Bilgi ve tecr\u00fcbeden yoksun kalan \u015fehzadeler, padi\u015fah olunca devlet adamlar\u0131 ve saray kad\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n etkisi alt\u0131nda kalm\u0131\u015flard\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>OSMANLI DEVLET\u0130&#8217;NDE LAY\u0130HALAR<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Layiha, \u00f6zellikle XVII. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan itibaren devlet d\u00fczenindeki olumsuzluklar\u0131n giderilmesi i\u00e7in tavsiye niteli\u011findeki g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f metinleridir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130lk defa Veziriazam L\u00fctfi Pa\u015fa bu t\u00fcrden eser olan Asafname\u2019yi haz\u0131rlad\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XVII. Y\u00fczy\u0131lda Ko\u00e7i Bey, K\u00e2tip \u00c7elebi, Ayni Ali Efendi ve di\u011fer devlet adamlar\u0131na raporlar (risale-layiha) haz\u0131rlat\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Layihalar, Osmanl\u0131 y\u00f6netimindeki aksakl\u0131klar\u0131n nedenini<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>asker\u00ee, sosyal ve ekonomik alanlarda sars\u0131lmalara ba\u011flamaktayd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Layihalarda Osmanl\u0131 kadim (eski) d\u00fczenine d\u00f6nme d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesi \u00f6n plandad\u0131r<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Raporlar\u0131n i\u00e7erikleri dikkate al\u0131narak bu gidi\u015fata son vermek ve Osmanl\u0131 Devleti&#8217;ni tekrar eski g\u00fcc\u00fcne ula\u015ft\u0131rmak amac\u0131yla II. Osman ve IV. Murat gibi h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar ile Tarhuncu Ahmet ve K\u00f6pr\u00fcl\u00fcler gibi sadrazamlar d\u00f6neminde \u0131slahatlar yapt\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>III. Selim ilk defa Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6nemli \u015fehirlerine<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>daimi el\u00e7ilikler kurdu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>El\u00e7iler haz\u0131rlad\u0131klar\u0131 layihalar\u0131 III. Selim\u2019e sundular.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>LALE DEVR\u0130<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Pasarof\u00e7a\u2019dan sonra art\u0131k Avrupa\u2019ya kar\u015f\u0131 d\u0131\u015f politikada gaza yerine savunma ilkesine ba\u011fl\u0131 politikalar izlemeye ba\u015fland\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Lale Devri, 1718\u2019de imzalanan Pasarof\u00e7a Antla\u015fmas\u0131 ile ba\u015flayan ve 1730\u2019da Patrona Halil \u0130syan\u0131 ile sona eren d\u00f6nemdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Osmanl\u0131 padi\u015fah\u0131 III. Ahmet ve Sadrazam Nev\u015fehirli Damat \u0130brahim Pa\u015fa\u2019n\u0131n sadrazaml\u0131k d\u00f6nemini kapsayan zevk, e\u011flence, bar\u0131\u015f, yenile\u015fme ve sivil reformlar\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc bu d\u00f6neme Lale Devri ad\u0131 verilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130stanbul\u2019da Hali\u00e7 ve Bo\u011fazi\u00e7i ba\u015fta olmak \u00fczere lale yeti\u015ftirildi\u011finden dolay\u0131 ilk defa Yahya Kemal Beyatl\u0131 bu devir i\u00e7in \u201cLale Devri\u201d tabirini kullanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Damat \u0130brahim Pa\u015fa, Avrupa\u2019y\u0131 tan\u0131man\u0131n Osmanl\u0131 d\u0131\u015f politikas\u0131 ve ticareti i\u00e7in \u00f6nemli oldu\u011funa inanan ve fiilen ad\u0131mlar\u0131 atan ilk sadrazamd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Damat \u0130brahim Pa\u015fa D\u00f6nemi&#8217;nde Paris, Viyana, Var\u015fova, Lehistan ve Rusya\u2019ya giden el\u00e7iler diplomatik ve ticari g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fmelerde bulundular.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>El\u00e7iler, Avrupa k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fc, sanat\u0131, sanayisi, tar\u0131m\u0131,&nbsp; asker\u00ee-teknolojik g\u00fcc\u00fc ve diplomasisi hakk\u0131nda bilgi edindiler. Edindikleri bu bilgileri birer rapor h\u00e2linde \u0130stanbul\u2019a sundular.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Yirmisekiz \u00c7elebi Mehmet Efendi\u2019nin Paris el\u00e7ili\u011finin ard\u0131ndan sundu\u011fu raporla Osmanl\u0131\u2019da Bat\u0131l\u0131la\u015fma hareketleri fiilen ba\u015flad\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu devir Osmanl\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce uyan\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Osmanl\u0131 devlet erk\u00e2n\u0131 ve zenginleri yeni konaklar, k\u00f6\u015fkler ve saraylar in\u015fa ettirdiler.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bu d\u00f6nemde \u00c7elebi Mehmet Efendi\u2019nin o\u011flu Mehmet Said Efendi ve \u0130brahim M\u00fcteferrika\u2019n\u0131n gayretleriyle 1727\u2019de \u0130stanbul&#8217;da matbaa kuruldu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Nev\u015fehirli Damat \u0130brahim Pa\u015fa, yang\u0131nlara kar\u015f\u0131 1720\u2019de Tulumbac\u0131 Oca\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131 kurmak \u00fczere Frans\u0131z as\u0131ll\u0131 M\u00fcsl\u00fcman bir m\u00fchendis olan Ger\u00e7ek Davud\u2019u (David) g\u00f6revlendirdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Yalova\u2019da k\u00e2\u011f\u0131t imali ba\u015flad\u0131, \u0130stanbul\u2019da 1725\u2019te bir \u00e7ini fabrikas\u0131 kuruldu. \u0130stanbul\u2019da mevcut \u00e7uha fabrikas\u0131n\u0131n yan\u0131nda &#8220;Hatayi&#8221; ismi verilen kuma\u015f\u0131 dokumak \u00fczere bir ba\u015fka fabrika daha in\u015fa edildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130stanbul\u2019da ba\u015fta mimari olmak \u00fczere hemen her alanda Frans\u0131z tesiri, s\u00fcsleme sanat\u0131nda ise barok ve rokoko tarzlar\u0131 etkili oldu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Do\u011fu ve Bat\u0131 dillerinden terc\u00fcmeler yap\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Deniz yoluyla ta\u015fradan gelen yolcular\u0131 sa\u011fl\u0131k bak\u0131m\u0131ndan kontrol etmek, yani karantina usul\u00fcn\u00fc uygulamak Yirmisekiz \u00c7elebi Mehmet Efendi\u2019nin Sefaretnamesi\u2019nden sonra \u00f6nem kazand\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130stanbul\u2019da \u00e7i\u00e7ek hastal\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 tedavi edebilecek bilgili doktorlar bulunuyordu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Zenginlerin Bat\u0131 ya\u015fam tarz\u0131 olan e\u015fyalar\u0131 ithal etmeleri moda olmu\u015ftu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Geleneksel al\u00e7ak divanlar\u0131n yerini koltuk ve iskemle alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Pantolon giymek moda h\u00e2line gelmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bat\u0131l\u0131 ressamlar zengin Osmanl\u0131lar\u0131n portrelerini yapm\u0131\u015flard\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>B\u00fct\u00fcn bunlar Tanzimat D\u00f6nemi\u2019ndeki Osmanl\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce uyan\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>MATBAANIN GEL\u0130\u015eT\u0130R\u0130LMES\u0130 VE OSMANLIYA GEL\u0130\u015e\u0130<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ka\u011f\u0131t ve matbaay\u0131 ilk defa \u00c7inliler kullanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r..<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u00c7in bas\u0131m tekni\u011fi yetersizl ve geni\u015f yaz\u0131lara uygun de\u011fildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Alman Johann Gutenberg (Yohen Gut\u0131nberg) hareketli harflerle bask\u0131 tekni\u011fini 1440\u2019l\u0131 y\u0131llar\u0131n sonuna do\u011fru buldu ve 1452- 1455 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda hareketli harflerle iki ciltlik \u0130ncil bas\u0131ld\u0131<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupa\u2019da k\u00e2\u011f\u0131t ve matbaa kullan\u0131l\u0131nca d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ve bilgi h\u0131zla yay\u0131ld\u0131. R\u00f6nesans\u2019\u0131n do\u011fu\u015fu ve yay\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131 matbaan\u0131n icad\u0131yla yak\u0131ndan ilgiliydi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Matbaan\u0131n icad\u0131n\u0131n en \u00f6nemli sonu\u00e7lar\u0131ndan biri de \u0130ncil\u2019in de\u011fi\u015fik dillere \u00e7evrilip \u00e7ok say\u0131da bas\u0131lmas\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130lk kez bir rahibin liderli\u011fine gerek kalmadan \u0130ncil\u2019i okuyanlar art\u0131k kiliseyi ele\u015ftirebilecek d\u00fczeydeydiler.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130ncil\u2019de anlat\u0131lanlarla kilisenin anlatt\u0131\u011f\u0131 dinin ayn\u0131 olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 sonucuna varanlar, matbaay\u0131 kullanarak ele\u015ftirileriyle reformun haz\u0131rlanmas\u0131 ve Protestanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n olu\u015fumunda \u00f6nc\u00fc olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u00c7e\u015fitli konularda \u00e7ok say\u0131da kitap bas\u0131lmas\u0131, Avrupa\u2019da insanlar\u0131n o g\u00fcne de\u011fin kendilerine sunulmu\u015f veya dayat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olgular\u0131 sorgulamalar\u0131na yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>OSMANLIDA MATBAA<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130lk kez II. Bayezid d\u00f6neminde Yahudi az\u0131nl\u0131klar taraf\u0131ndan kuruldu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>1567 y\u0131l\u0131nda Ermeniler \u0130stanbul\u2019da matbaa kurdular.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130stanbul&#8217;da ilk Rum matbaas\u0131 Rum rahibi Nicodemus Metaxas (Nikodmus Metak\u0131s) taraf\u0131ndan 1627\u2019de a\u00e7\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130brahim M\u00fcteferrika matbaan\u0131n \u00f6nemini anlatmak i\u00e7in kitap bas\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n faydalar\u0131n\u0131 i\u00e7eren &#8220;Ves\u00eelet\u00fc&#8217;t T\u0131b\u00e2a&#8217;y\u0131&#8221; haz\u0131rlayarak sadrazama sunmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130brahim M\u00fcteferrika ile Mehmet Said Efendi&#8217;ye, III. Ahmet&#8217;in ferman\u0131 ve \u015feyh\u00fclislam\u0131n fetvas\u0131 ile ilk T\u00fcrk matbaas\u0131n\u0131 kurma izni verildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130lk kitap 1729 y\u0131l\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015flar\u0131nda bas\u0131ld\u0131. Bas\u0131lan eser, kaynaklarda \u201cVankulu Lugat\u0131\u201d ad\u0131yla ge\u00e7en \u201cS\u0131hahul Cevheri\u201d terc\u00fcmesiydi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Matbaan\u0131n ilk kitaplar\u0131 bin be\u015f y\u00fcz adet kadar bas\u0131l\u0131rken sonrakilerde bu say\u0131 be\u015f y\u00fcze inmi\u015fti. Bunda bas\u0131lan kitaplar\u0131n sat\u0131lamamas\u0131n\u0131n rol\u00fc vard\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>K\u00c2T\u0130P \u00c7ELEB\u0130<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>K\u00e2tip \u00c7elebi 1609- 1657 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131 ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f, XVIII. y\u00fczy\u0131l T\u00fcrk bilim d\u00fcnyas\u0131n\u0131n pozitif ve h\u00fcr d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceyi savunan ismidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u0130limde taassubun (ba\u011fnazl\u0131k) sak\u0131ncalar\u0131ndan bahsederek kaynaktan tahliller yaparak yararl\u0131 olan\u0131n kabul edilmesi gerekti\u011fini vurgulam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>K\u00e2tip \u00c7elebi Osmanl\u0131&#8217;daki dura\u011fanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ve Avrupa\u2019daki bilimsel canl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n fark\u0131na varm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201cD\u00fcst\u00fbr\u00fc&#8217;lAmel\u201d adl\u0131 risalesinde devlet d\u00fczenine ili\u015fkin de\u011ferlendirmelerde bulunmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avrupal\u0131lar\u0131n, \u00f6zellikle Yunanl\u0131lar\u0131n co\u011frafya konusundaki bilgileriyle \u0130slam yazarlar\u0131n\u0131n bilgilerini k\u0131yaslay\u0131p &#8220;Cihann\u00fcma\u2019\u2019 adl\u0131 eserini haz\u0131rlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cihann\u00fcma\u2019da Osmanl\u0131\u2019da ba\u015flayan baz\u0131 siyasi, sosyal ve ekonomik bozukluklara de\u011finen K\u00e2tip \u00c7elebi, bu konuda birtak\u0131m \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm \u00f6nerileri de sunmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>EVL\u0130YA \u00c7ELEB\u0130 1611- 1685<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Evliya \u00c7elebi 1611- 1685 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f T\u00fcrk tarihinin en \u00f6nemli seyyahlar\u0131ndan biridir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Evliya \u00c7elebi, iyi bir e\u011fitim alman\u0131n yan\u0131 s\u0131ra zaman\u0131n\u0131n ge\u00e7erli yabanc\u0131 dilleri olan Arap\u00e7a, Fars\u00e7a, Rumca ve bir miktar da Latince \u00f6\u011frenmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Seyahatname isimli eserinde &#8220;Rum, Arap, Acem, \u0130sve\u00e7, Leh ve \u00c7ek\u2019te 7 iklim, 18 padi\u015fahl\u0131k yerini 51 y\u0131l boyunca gezip dola\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131&#8221; anlatm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Evliya \u00c7elebi, Seyahatname\u2019yi 1630- 1681 tarihleri aras\u0131nda yazd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Seyahatname, Osmanl\u0131 Devleti\u2019nin adeta fiziki yap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n yaz\u0131ya d\u00f6k\u00fclm\u00fc\u015f bir maketini ortaya koymak i\u00e7in kaleme al\u0131nm\u0131\u015f bir eserdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eserde gayrim\u00fcslimlerin ya\u015fay\u0131\u015f\u0131na ve k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcne ait pek \u00e7ok \u00f6rnek yer al\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eserinde ger\u00e7ek ve kurmaca anlat\u0131m\u0131 ustaca kullanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>NA\u0130MA EFEND\u0130\u00a0 1655-1716<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Naima Osmanl\u0131 Devleti\u2019nin ilk resm\u00ee tarih\u00e7isi, vakan\u00fcvisidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>1655-1716 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda ya\u015fad\u0131 As\u0131l ismi Mustafa\u2019d\u0131r. Naima ise mahlas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Naima Tarihi isimli eseri, i\u00e7erik itibariyle olaylar\u0131 kronolojik bir s\u0131ra i\u00e7erisinde nakleden gelene\u011fe s\u0131k\u0131 s\u0131k\u0131ya ba\u011fl\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tarih\u00e7i s\u0131fat\u0131yla ele ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 metni dikkatli \u015fekilde yer yer kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmalar yaparak ve s\u00f6zl\u00fc kaynaklara ba\u015fvurarak \u015fekillendirmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kullan\u0131lan eserlerin isimlerini zikretmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eserde neden sonu\u00e7 ili\u015fkisi vurgulanm\u0131\u015f,&nbsp; gelecekte olabilecek olaylar\u0131n kurgusu da yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Naima\u2019ya g\u00f6re devletlerin ve toplumlar\u0131n kurulu\u015f, ya\u015fay\u0131\u015f, olgunluk ve y\u0131k\u0131l\u0131\u015f sebeplerini bilmeyen ki\u015filer kendi devleti i\u00e7in de herhangi bir tedbir alamaz.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ona g\u00f6re devlet i\u00e7in en zararl\u0131 \u015fey, uzun sava\u015flar ve devlet adamlar\u0131n\u0131n aralar\u0131ndaki g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f ayr\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>YANYALI ESAD EFEND\u0130<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>XVIII. Y\u00fczy\u0131lda ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f olan Mehmet Esad Yunanistan\u2019\u0131n Yanya \u015fehrinde do\u011fdu\u011fu i\u00e7in eserlerinde &#8220;Yanyavi\u2019\u2019 mahlas\u0131n\u0131 kullanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mant\u0131k, felsefe, kelam, matematik, astronomi ve \u00d6klid geometrisi alanlar\u0131nda dersler ald\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>M\u00fcderrislik ve kad\u0131l\u0131k g\u00f6revlerinde bulundu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Lale Devri\u2019nin en \u00f6nemli ilim ve fikir adamlar\u0131ndan biridir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>III. Ahmet\u2019in Topkap\u0131 Saray\u0131\u2019nda kurdu\u011fu k\u00fct\u00fcphanede vazifelendirildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Aristo\u2019nun baz\u0131 eserlerini Arap\u00e7aya \u00e7evirip yorumlamas\u0131 ile tan\u0131nd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Devrinin \u00e2limleri ona \u201cMuallim-i Salis (\u00dc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc \u00d6\u011fretmen) unvan\u0131n\u0131 verdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Grek\u00e7e\u2019den terc\u00fcme yapan heyetin ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131na getirildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201cTalim\u00fc\u2019s Salis\u201dad\u0131n\u0131 verdi\u011fi eserinde Aristo\u2019nun \u2018\u2019 Fizika \u2018\u2019 esrinin \u00e7evirisi ve yorumu yer almaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<div class=\"mh-excerpt\"><p>Bu yaz\u0131m\u0131zda g\u00fcncel m\u00fcfredata g\u00f6re haz\u0131rlad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z\u00a011. s\u0131n\u0131f tarih dersi 2. \u00fcnitesi\u00a0olan\u00a0De\u011fi\u015fim \u00c7a\u011f\u0131nda\u00a0Avrupa ve Osmanl\u0131\u00a0\u00fcnitesinin ders notlar\u0131n\u0131\u00a0payla\u015f\u0131yoruz.\u00a011. s\u0131n\u0131f tarih kitab\u0131 \u00f6zet pdf\u00a0ders notlar\u0131 sayesinde derslerde daha <a class=\"mh-excerpt-more\" href=\"https:\/\/tarihkursu.com\/index.php\/2024\/11\/04\/11-sinif-tarih-2-unite-degisim-caginda-avrupa-ve-osmanli\/\" title=\"11. 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